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EARTH  I  v 1 > 

SCIENCES  OF  THK 

Rt7kivERsiTY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

(rlKT     OV 

V 


Accessions  No.  &  9 


,  189?' 

CLns  No. 


AN 


INTRODUCTION 


MINERALOGY; 


ADAPTED  TO  THE  USE  .OF  SCHOOLS 


AND  PRIVATE  STUDENTS. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NEARLY  TWO  HUNDRED  WOOD  CUTS. 


BY  JOHN  L,.  COMSTOCK,  M.  D. 


THIRTEENTH  EDITION. 


NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  PRATT,  WOODFORD  <fc  CO. 

1848.     -I*'- 
^^^^  *, 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 
LIBRARV 


ENTERED, 
According  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  by 

ROBINSON,  PRATT,  &  CO. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut 


•TKREOTYPED  BY  F.  F.  BIPLEY, 
NEW  YORK. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO  THE 


SECOND    EDITION 


THE  Introductory  part  of  this  volume  is  entirely  new,  and 
has  been  prepared  with  the  intention  of  making  the  subjects 
of  which  it  treats  understood  with  the  greatest  possible  facility 
by  youth  and  private  students.  More  than  forty  new  cuts 
have  been  added  to  this  part  of  the  work,  and  by  means  of 
which  it  is  believed  that  any  person  with  ordinary  diligence 
may  understand  the  elements  of  crystallography  in  a  few 
days. 

In  the  descriptive  part  of  the  work,  the  synonyms  have  been 
chiefly  omitted,  as  occupying  a  considerable  portion  of  space, 
without  any  adequate  advantage  to  the  beginner.  The  more 
rare  varieties  have  also  been  left  out  for  the  same  reason. 

Corrections  have  been  made  in  most  parts  of  the  volume, 
some  of  them  in  consequence  of  the  kinkness  of  scientific 
friends,  and  the  whole,  it  is  hoped,  made  more  acceptable  to 
the  public,  both  in  respect  to  accuracy  and  price,  than  the 
former  edition. 

J.  L.  C. 

Hartford,  June,  1832. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO  THE 


THIRD    EDITION 


IN  preparing  the  third  edition  of  this  work  for  publication, 
the  most  recent  works  on  Mineralogy,  as  well  as  the  late 
numbers  of  Scientific  Journals,  have  been  consulted.  Many 
new  species  have  been  added  to  the  text,  while  others  have 
been  thrown  into  the  form  of  an  alphabetical  appendix.  The 
whole  has  been  examined  with  reference  to  new  localities, 
which  have  been  added  so  far  as  the  plan  of  the  book  would 
admit.  Descriptions  of  minerals  occurring  at  single  foreign 
localities,  have  been  omitted,  unless  of  uncommon  interest, 
since  their  insertion  would  have  swelled  the  volume,  without 
any  adequate  advantage  to  the  student 

J    L.  C. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  August,  1836. 


INDEX 


Paffe. 

Page. 

Acidiferous  earthy  minerals, 
Actynolite, 
acicular, 

56  Antimony,  native, 
1601         sulphuret  of, 
1611         sulphuretted  oxide  of, 

309 
309 
310 

bladeJ, 

160  ;  Apatite, 

73 

asbestiform, 

161!  Aphnte, 

59 

massive, 

161  Aplome, 

123 

Adhesive  slate, 
Adulana, 

141  Apophyllite, 
209  Argentine, 

204 
58 

Agalinatolite, 

216  Argillaceous  oxide  of  iron. 

285 

Agaric  mineral,                         16,  59          columnar. 

235 

Agate, 

lenticular, 

286 

brecciated, 

115          nodular, 

287 

fortification, 

115          pisiform, 

236 

moss, 

115  Argiilite, 

136 

riband, 

1  J  5          shining, 

136 

Alabaster, 
Albin, 

60  Arragonite, 
203  Arseniate  of  cobalt, 

69 
272 

Alkaline  fluateof  lime, 

200!  Arseniate  of  copper, 

254 

Allanite, 

316          octohedral, 

254 

Alrnandine, 
Alum, 

119          oblique  prismatic, 
193          right  prismatic, 

255 
255 

Alum  slate, 

141          rhomboidal, 

255 

Alum  stone, 

199  Arseniate  of  iron, 

255 

Alumine  and  potash,  sulphate  of, 
Altunine,  sub-phosphate  of, 

193  Arseniate  of  lime, 
84  Arseniate  of  nickel, 

83 
269 

Alumine, 

84  Arsenic, 

311 

sub-  sulphate  of, 

84          native, 

311 

Amber, 

341          oxide  of, 

312 

Amblygonite, 

200          sulphuret  of, 

312 

Ametnyst, 

99  Asbestos, 

164 

Amiantlioide, 
Amianthus, 

150  Asparagus  stone, 
164  Augite, 

74 
151 

Ammonia,  muriate  of, 

197  Automolite, 

174 

sulphate  of, 

197  Axinite, 

135 

Analcime, 

222  Azurite, 

180 

Andalusite, 

204  Baikalite, 

154 

Angles  of  crystals, 

39  Barytes, 

83 

Anhydrite, 

81          carbonate  of, 

83 

compact, 

82          sulphate  of, 

89,  92 

granular, 

81  Baryto-calcite, 

92 

fibrous, 

31   Basalt, 

225 

silicious, 

82  Beryl, 

187 

Anhydrous  gypsum, 

81  Bismuth, 

267 

Anhydrous  sulphate  of  soda  and 

native, 

267 

lime, 

200          oxide  of, 

263 

Anorthite, 

212i         sulphuret  of, 

263 

Anthracite, 
Anti  nonial  silver, 

332  Bitter-spar, 
239  Bituminous  limestone. 

71 

133 

Antimony, 

308          shale, 

139 

i* 

. 

INDEX. 


Pa-re. 

Page. 

Bituminous,  wood, 
Black  coal, 

339  Chrome,  oxide  0$ 
336  Chrysoberyl, 

311 
176 

lead, 

Sol   Chrysolite, 

ISO 

oxide  of  manganese, 
Blende, 

304  Clirjstailugraphy, 
298  Chrysocolla, 

?},  24 

'251 

Bloodstone, 

112  Chrysoprase, 

113 

Bloedite, 

87  Cimohte. 

147 

Blowpipe, 

50  Cinnabar, 

237 

Blue  cai  bonate  of  copper, 

249  Cinnamon-stone, 

1*4 

Bole, 

146  Citrine, 

97 

Boiate  of  lime, 

82  Class  1. 

56 

silicious, 

82  II. 

!)5 

of  soda, 

194 

111. 

111 

Borax, 

194 

IV. 

198 

Botryolite, 

83 

.     -y 

201 

Brucite, 

131 

VI. 

232 

Bucholzite, 

204 

vn. 

3^:5 

Bys?olite, 

151 

Clay, 

142 

Cacholong, 

17,  110 

indurated, 

142 

Cadmium, 

324 

porcelain, 

144 

Calamine, 

301 

iron, 

142 

Calamite, 

159 

Clay-blate, 

135 

Calcareous  spar, 

17,  V 

Cleavelandite, 

230 

tufa, 
Cannel  coal,          \ 

17 
336 

Cleavage, 
Coal,  black, 

36 
336 

Carbonate  of  barytes, 

88 

cannel, 

336 

of  copper,  blue, 

249 

mineral, 

335 

of  copper,  green, 

250 

Cobalt, 

270 

of  iron, 

269 

arseniate  of, 

272 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

57 

arsenical, 

'271 

bituminous, 

67 

Coccolite, 

154 

concreted, 

6S 

white, 

154 

fetid, 

61 

Colophonite, 

124 

magnesian, 

70 

Colours, 

43 

of  manganese, 
of  soda, 

306 
192 

Columibum, 
lenugmous  oxide  of, 

314 
314 

Carnelian, 

17,  113 

Common  salt, 

195 

Cat's  eye, 

103 

Common  forms, 

31 

Celestine, 

93 

Copper, 

244 

fibrous, 

91 

arseniate  of, 

254 

foliated, 

94 

blue  carbonate  of, 

249 

Cerium, 

315 

green  carbonate  of, 

250 

rluate  of, 
silicious  oxide  of, 

316 
315 

lurrugmous  sulphuret  of, 
martial  arseniate  of, 

245 
256 

Chabasie, 

228 

native, 

244 

Chalcedony, 

109 

octohedral  arseniate  of, 

254 

Chalk, 

63 

phosphate  of, 

252 

Charcoal,  mineral, 

331 

purple, 

246 

Chemical  characters, 

49,  70 

rhomboidal  arseniate  of, 

255 

mineralogy, 

51 

red  oxide  of, 

248 

Chiastolite, 

161 

sulphate  of, 

252 

Chlorite, 

216 

sulphuret  of, 

245 

common, 

216 

grey, 

247 

crystallized, 

216 

white, 

248 

slate, 

217 

pyrites, 

245 

Chloropal, 

119  Corundum, 

168 

Chlorophane, 
Chromate  of  lead, 

77  Crichtonite, 
266  Cnmmingtonile, 

320 

205 

Chromate  of  iron, 
Chrome, 

291  Cyanite, 
310  .Derbyshire  spar, 

J72 
73 

INDEX. 


Pape. 

Pajro 

Diallage, 

163  Grossular, 

122 

green, 

163  Gypsum, 

77 

metalloidal, 

163          anhydrous, 

81 

Diamond, 

327 

compact, 

78 

Diaspore, 

169          fibrous, 

81 

Diopside, 

152          granular, 

81 

Dipyre, 

137  !  Haicungerite, 

84 

Dolomite, 

70  Hardness, 

46 

Double  refraction, 

41 

Harmotome, 

149 

Egeran, 

126  Hauyne, 

206 

Electricity, 

46  Heavy  spar, 

91 

Emerald, 

188!Hedenbergite, 

157 

Emery, 
Epidote, 

169!  Heliotrope, 
133  Hematite, 

112 

284 

manganesian, 

134 

brown, 

285 

granular, 

134 

red, 

285 

Euclase, 

187 

Heulandite, 

129 

Fahlunite, 

129 

Hornblende, 

155 

Fassaite, 

149 

basaltic, 

156 

Felspar, 

203 

slate, 

156 

common, 

203 

Horn  silver, 

236 

compact, 

212 

Hornstone, 

117 

fetidf 

212 

Huraulite, 

314 

green, 

211 

Hyacinth, 

185 

glassy, 
opalescent, 
Ferro-magnesian  carbonate 
lime, 

210 
211 
of 

70 

Hydrate  of  magnesia, 
Hydrophane, 
Hyperthene, 
Ich  t  h  yophthalmite, 

132 
107 
162 

204 

Fibrolite, 

171 

Idrccase, 

125 

Flint, 

15,  107 

Indicolite, 

215 

Fluate  of  cerium, 

316'lolite, 

179 

Fluate  of  lime, 

75  Iridium, 

324 

alkaline, 

204 

Iron 

273 

crystallized, 
nodular, 

75 
75 

arg:llaceous  oxide  of, 
arseniate  of, 

20,  285 
292 

Franklintte, 

238 

arsenical, 

275 

Fuller's  earth, 

145 

chromate  of, 

291 

Gabronite, 

186 

carbonate  of, 

289 

Galena, 

257 

carburet  of, 

331 

compact, 

258 

crystals  of, 

23 

granular, 
specular, 

258 
258 

hydrous  oxide  of, 
magnetic, 

288 
279 

Garnei, 

119 

meteoric, 

273 

common, 

121 

native, 

19,  273 

manganesian, 

123 

phosphate  of, 

89,  273 

precious, 

119 

earthy, 

299 

Gedonolite, 

150 

sulphuret  of, 

19,  275 

Geh'enite, 

126 

brown, 

19,  283 

Gibbsife, 

85,  170 

magnetic, 

19,  278 

Gieseckite, 

203 

specular,          - 

19,  281 

Glaubente, 

196 

micaceous, 

19 

Glauber's  salt, 

189 

fibrous  brown, 

283 

Gmelinite, 

149          compact, 

283 

Gold, 

233          red, 

20,  284 

native, 

233 

Iron  ore, 

18,  287 

Goniometer, 

40 

boar, 

20,  287 

Gray  copper, 
Green  earth, 

240 
217 

pyrites  , 
radiated, 

275 
268 

diallage, 
Green  oxide  of  uranium. 

163 

294 

Ittrio-calcareous  oxide  of  cerium,  306 
Jade        .                                         227 

a 

INDEX. 

Page.  | 

Jamesonite, 

260 

Manganese  black  oxide  of, 

Jargoon, 

136 

carbonate  of, 

Jasper, 

J16 

Marble, 

common, 

116 

Caen, 

Egyptian, 
porcelain, 

116 
117 

Egyptian, 
elastic, 

striped, 

116 

Fiorito, 

Jasper,  ruin, 

117 

Languedoc, 

riband, 

116 

Laconian, 

Jenite, 

119 

lumachella, 

Jeffersonite, 

118 

Middlebury, 

Jet, 

340 

Luni, 

Kaolin, 

144 

New  Haven, 

Karpholite, 

127 

Parian, 

Kupaphrite, 

256 

panno  di  morto, 

Kyanite, 

172 

Pentehcan, 

Labrador  opal, 
Lapis  Lazuli, 

43 
135 

Philadelphia, 
Pentworth, 

Laumonite, 

137 

Potomac, 

Lava, 

223 

rain, 

Lazulite, 

180 

statuary,  . 

Lead, 

257 

St.  Baum, 

arseniate  of> 

264 

Seneca  Lake, 

blue, 

264 

Thomaston, 

carbonate  of, 

260 

translucent, 

chromate  of, 

266 

verde  antique, 

molybdateof, 
murio-carbonate  of, 

265 
262 

conehitic, 
Mechanical  division, 

sulphate  of, 

261 

Melanite, 

Lepidolite, 

228 

Mercury, 

Leucite, 

203 

muriate  of, 

Leucopyrite, 

298 

native, 

Lignite, 

338 

sulphuret  of, 

earthy, 

339 

VIesolite, 

fibrous, 
Ligniform  asbestos, 

339 
166 

Metalloidal  diallage, 
Mica, 

Lime, 

56 

Vlicaceous  oxide  of  iron. 

arseniate  of, 

83 

Mineral  charcoal, 

carbonate  of, 

57 

coal, 

nitrate  of, 

82 

oil, 

phosphate  of, 

73 

Vlocha  stone, 

sulphate  of, 

77 

VIolybdena, 

Limestone,  bituminous, 

17 

oxide  of, 

common, 

17,  64 

sulphuret  of, 

granular, 

61 

Mountain  coik, 

Litho  marge, 

145 

leather, 

Loam, 

148 

meal, 

Lustre, 

45 

paper, 

Made, 

161 

Vluriate  of  ammonia, 

Magnesia, 

86 

of  cop  per, 

borate  of, 

88 

of  soda, 

carbonate  of, 

87 

Munacite, 

hydrate  of, 

182  Nacrite, 

sulphate  of, 

87 

Naptha, 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron, 
sulphuret  of  iron, 
Malachite, 
compact, 

279 
278 
250 
251 

Native  antimony, 
arsenic, 
copper, 
gold, 

fibrous, 

250 

palladium, 

Manganese, 

304 

platina, 

Page. 

304 

306 

64 

66 

61 

62 

65 

66 

62 

64 

63 

02 

63 

62 

65 

62 

62 

62 

62 

65 

61 

66 

66 

63 

62 

62 

64 

36 

123 

236 

238 

236 

237 

130 

163 

201 

282 

331 

335 

334 

115 

306 

303 

307 

165 

166 

147 

166 

197 

245 

195 

81 

205 

334 

308 

311 

244 

223 

323 

232 


INDEX. 


Native  quicksilver, 

sulphur, 
Natrohte, 
Nephrite, 
Nickel, 

native, 
Nitrate  of  lime,'! 

of  potash, 

of  soda, 
Nitre, 

Novaculite, 
Obsidian, 
O  I,  vine, 
Onyx, 
Oolite, 
Opal, 

common, 

ferruginous, 

fire,  J 

precious, 

semi, 

Opalized  wood, 
Orpiment, 
Oxide  of  arsenic, 

of  chrome, 

of  columbiuin, 

of  manganese, 

of  molybdena, 

of  tin, 

of  titanium, 

of  tungsten, 

of  zinc,  red, 
Palladium, 
Pargasite, 
Pearl -spar, 
Pearl-stone, 
Pea-stone, 
Peliom, 
Petroleum, 
Phosphate  of  iron, 

of  lead, 

of  lime, 

Phosphorescence, 
Pimelite, 
Plnito, 
Pitch -stone, 
Plasma, 
Platina, 

native, 

Plaister  of  Paris, 
Pleonaste, 
Polyhalite, 
Porcelain  clay, 
Porcelain  jasper, 
Putstone, 
Potas'i, 

nitrate  of, 
Potassium, 
Potter's  clay, 
Predominant  forms, 


Pa-re. 
236 
325 
130 
227 
263 
269 
82 
191 
194 
191 
140 
206 
131 
110 
16,  68 
17,  104 
105 
107 
105 
164. 
106! 
105: 
313! 
312J 
301 


Prennite, 
Primitive  forms, 
Pumice, 
Purple  copper, 
Pycnite, 
Pyrallolite, 
Pyrgom, 
Pyrites, 

common, 
Pyrope, 
Pyrophysalite, 
Pyroxene, 
Quartz, 

avanturine, 

common, 

ferruginous, 

fetid, 

granular, 

green, 

insed, 

milky, 

radiated, 

rose, 

smoky, 

spongiform, 

stalactical, 

yellow, 

violet, 


294  i 
293: 

295  Realger, 
317  Reddle, 
312  Red  chalk, 

291:        oxide  of  iron, 
323         oxide  of  titanium, 
156         oxide  of  zinc, 

72 1  Rhomb-spar, 
207|Rocstone, 

68'  Romanzovite, 
179,  Roof  slate, 
335  Rotten  stone, 
290,Rubellite, 
263,  Sahlite, 

73  Sandy  magnetic  oxide  of, 

48  Sapphire, 
2701         asteriated, 
171;      >  blue, 
222!        oriental, 
113!        red, 
232  Sard, 
232  Sardonyx, 

73  Satin-spar, 
179  Scapolite, 
201  Schorl, 
144         common, 
117  Selenium, 
215  Serpentine, 
19 1 1         common, 
191         precious, 

52  Shale, 
147         bituminous, 

25  Silicious  borate  of  lime, 


127 

29 
224 
246 
176 
159 
153 
275 
175 
122 
176 
151 
14,  95 

93 

95 
100 
102 
102 

93 
101 

99 
100 

99 
103 
102 
101 
100 

99 
312 
148 
143 
234 
317 
300 
42,  71 

63 
125 
138 
143 
220 
153 
280 
166 
167 
166 
167 
167 
111 
111 
18,  59 
132 
218 
219 
314 
182 
133 
183 
139 
139 

82 


10 


INDEX. 


Page 

Page. 

Silicious  oxide  of  cerium, 

315 

Sulphuret  magnetic, 

281 

oxide  of  manganese, 

304 

radiated, 

279 

oxide  of  zinc, 
Sillimanite. 

300 
231 

Sulphuret  ot  lead, 
antimonial, 

259 
259 

Silver, 

239 

Sulphurtt  of  molybdena, 

307 

antimonial, 

239 

Tabular  spar, 

73 

argillaceous  muriate  of, 

243 

Talc, 

213 

brittle  sulphuret  of, 

240 

indurated, 

214 

carbonate  of, 

242 

Tellurium, 

3-20 

muriate  of, 

242 

auro-  argentiferous,  native, 

321 

native, 

239 

native, 

326 

sulphuiet  of, 

240 

Tennantite, 

247 

Skorza, 
Slate  adhesive, 

134 
141 

Thomsonite, 
Tin, 

131 

295 

alum, 

141 

oxide  of, 

295 

clay, 

13$ 

Titanium, 

317 

grnphic, 

142 

oxide  of, 

317 

polishing, 

141 

Touchstone, 

142 

filicious, 

142 

Topaz, 

174 

Soapstone. 

214 

Topazolite, 

124 

Soda, 

192 

Tourmaline, 

218 

carbonate  of, 

192 

black, 

219 

borate  of, 

194 

blue, 

220 

nitrate  of, 

194 

green, 

220 

sulphate  of, 

192 

red, 

220 

Sodium, 

52 

yellow, 

'220 

Somini'e, 

231 

white, 

220 

Specific  gravity, 

49 

Tremolite, 

157 

Sphere, 

318 

bladed, 

158 

Spinelle, 

177 

crystallized, 

157 

Spodumene, 

220 

fibrous, 

158 

Stalactite, 

GO 

Tripoli, 

146 

Stalagmite, 

CO 

Truncation, 

27 

Staurotide, 

173 

Tungstate  of  iron 

322 

Steatite, 

24 

Tungsten, 

321 

Stein  heilite, 

179 

oxide  of, 

322 

Stilbite, 

12P 

Turquoise, 

170 

Strontian, 

93 

'Jmbtr, 

254 

carbonate  of, 

92 

Jianium, 

293 

sulphate  of, 

93 

black  oxide  of, 

293 

Sub-phosphate  of  alumine, 
Sulphate  of  alumine  and  potash, 

3F 
198 

green  oxide  of 
Vesuvian, 

294 
125 

of  ammonia, 

197 

Volcanic  sulphur, 

326 

of  barytes, 

69 

Wacke, 

142 

columnar, 

90 

Wernerite, 

*31 

compact, 
fetid, 

91  White  copper 
91  Wolfram, 

»48 
322 

fibrous, 

89  Wood  tin, 

297 

lamellar, 

88.  Venite, 

119 

Sulphate  of  lead, 

261  Zeolite, 

129 

of  lime, 

77 

foliated, 

1*29 

of  soda, 

192 

mealy, 

130 

of  /me, 

303  Zinc, 

298 

Sulphur,  native 

325         caibonate  of, 

301 

volcanic, 

sulphate  of. 

303 

Sulphuret  of  antimony, 

309         silicious  oxide  of, 

301 

of  arsenic, 

312         red  oxide  of, 

300 

red, 

313         sulphuret  of, 

29S 

yellow, 
Bulphuret  of  vbn, 

313  Zircon, 
275.Zoisite, 

184 
132 

INTRODUCTION  TO  MINERALOGY. 


IN  the  acquirement  of  knowledge  by  study,  there  is  no 
greater  incentive  to  perseverance,  than  a  consciousness  of 
having  made  progress.  It  is  on  this  account  that  I  shall  at 
once  introduce  my  young  students  to  the  practical  study  of 
minerals,  without  first  encumbering  their  memories  with  a  list" 
of  technical  words,  of  which,  at  present,  they  are  supposed  to 
know  nothing. 

Suppose,  then,  that  we  have  before  us  three  minerals,  of 
the  names  and  qualities  of  which  the  pupil  is  entirely  igno- 
rant, and  that  these  are  common  quartz,  common  limestone,  or 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  iron  ore.  These  are  selected  as  being 
widely  disseminated,  and  therefore  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
section  of  country. 

In  their  appearance,  the  two  substances  first  named  may 
resemble  each  other,  viz.  in  colour,  form,  and  transparency ; 
but  in  these,  as  well  as  in  nearly  every  other  respect,  they 
both  differ  from  all  the  varieties  of  iron  ore,  which  are  more 
weighty,  and  generally  of  a  darker  colour.  The  most  obvious 
properties  of  quartz  are  a  splintery  fracture,  a  vitreous,  or 
glassy  lustre,  and  such  a  degree  of  hardness  as  to  scratch 
glass,  and  give  fire  with  steel. 

Quartz  is  also  most  commonly  of  a  light  colour,  and  more 
or  less  transparent.  Limestone  has  an  uneven  fracture,  a 
glimmering,  or  shining  lustre,  is  so  soft  as  readily  to  be 
scratched  by  a  knife,  and  never  scratches  glass.  The  lime 
effervesces,  or  seems  to  boil,  when  a  drop  of  sulphuric  acid  is 
made  to  touch  it;  and  when  strongly  heated,  becomes  opaque 
and  if  then  a  little  water  be  thrown  on  it,  falls  into  fine  powder, 
which  is  well  known  under  the  name  of  quicklime.  On  the 
quartz  the  acid  has  not  the  least  effect,  and  when  this  sub- 

What  are  the  three  minerals,  the  qualities  of  which  it  is  here  proposed  to 
examine  ? — "Why  are  these  three  selected  ?— In  what  respects  do  common 
quartz  and  limestone  resemble  each  other*? — How  may  limestone  and 
quartz  be  distinguished  from  each  other  1 


12  INTRODUCTION  TO 

stance  is  heated  and  thrown  into  water,  it  only  cracks  in  pieces 
like  glass,  but  is  not  reduced  to  powder,  like  the  lime. 

Besides  their  greater  weight,  and  darker  colour,  the  iron 
ores  have  a  lustre  which  is  metallic,  that  is,  like  a  metal,  or 
are  dull  and  earthy,  having  no  lustre  at  all.  Many  kinds  of 
iron  ore  are  attracted  by  the  magnet,  especially  when  reduced 
to  small  particles.  Carbonate  of  lime,  and  quartz,  never  pos- 
sess this  property.  If  the  iron  ore  is  not  magnetic  in  its  natu- 
ral state,  it  becomes  so  after  being  heated  on  charcoal  with 
the  blowpipe.  (See  blowpipe.) 

Thus  the  difference  between  quartz,  limestone,  and  iron 
ore,  is  readily  distinguished,  and  may  be  stated  in  a  few  words. 
The  quartz  is  hard,  scratches  glass — cannot  be  scratched  by 
a  knife,  is  not  affected  by  the  acids,  and  does  not  burn  to 
quicklime  when  heated.  The  lime  yields  to  the  knife,  effer- 
vesces with  acids,  burns  to  quicklime,  and  never  scratches 
glass.  The  iron  ore  is  dark-coloured,  heavy,  and  is  either 
magnetic,  or  becomes  so  after  being  heated  on  charcoal. 
Iron,  after  being  dissolved  in  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  also  strikes 
a  black  colour  with  powdered  nutgalls. 

Thus  the  learner,  by  means  of  a  little  acid,  a  magnet,  and  a 
few  pieces  of  charcoal,  and  a  blowpipe,  can,  in  a  fe\v  minutes, 
enable  himself  to  distinguish  quartz  from  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  both  these  from  iron  ore,  and  will  at  the  same  time  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  leading  properties  of  each  of  these 
substances. 

There  are  however  many  varieties  of  each  of  these  mine- 
rals, which  differ  from  each  other  in  various  respects.  Thus 
one  variety  of  quartz  may  differ  from  another  in  respect  to 
colour,  fracture,  lustre,  transparency,  and  form.  The  varie- 
ties of  carbonate  of  lime  differ  from  each  other  in  colour, 
form,  fracture,  lustre,  odour,  adhesion  to  the  tongue,  hardness, 
and  transparency ;  while  the  varieties  of  iron  ore  vary  in  re- 
spect to  hardness,  colour,  lustre,  form,  fracture,  magnetism, 
specific  gravity,  and  hardness.  Still  there  are  some  common 
properties  in  respect  to  which  all  the  varieties  of  each  kind 
agree  with  one  another.  Thus,  all  the  varieties  of  quartz  agree 
in  scratching  glass,  in  being  insoluble  in  acids,  in  possessing 


How  does  iron  ore  differ  from  the  limestone  and  quartz? — If  iron  ore  is 
not  magnetic  in  its  natural  state,  how  does  it  become  so? — What  is  the 
sum  of  the  differences  between  quart/,  limestone,  and  iron  ore? — In  what 
respects  do  the  varieties  of  quartz  differ  from  each  other? — In  what  re- 
spects do  the  varieties  of  lime  differ  from  each  other? — What  difference  is 
there  between  the  varieties  of  iron  ore  ?— In  what  do  all  the  varieties  of 
quartz  agree  1 


MINERALOGY.  13 

more  or  less  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  in  being  infusible  by 
heat.  The  properties  common  to  carbonate  of  lime,  arc  ef- 
fervescence with  acids,  yielding  to  the  knife,  and  conversion 
into  quicklime  by  heat.  While  the  common  properties  of  iron 
ore  are  considerable  weight,  fusibility  by  heat,  and  thereby 
becoming  magnetic — a  dark  colour,  and  especially  that  of 
making  a  black  colour  with  nutgalls,  after  solution  in  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Thus  far  it  is  only  expected  that  the  learner  will  be  enabled 
to  distinguish  the  several  varieties  of  quartz,  from  those  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  or  in  other  words,  the  silicious  from  the  cal- 
careous minerals,  and  these,  from  the  ores  of  iron. 

But  the  inquiring  pupil  will  soon  find  that  there  are  many 
species  of  stones  which  are  neither  silicious  nor  calcareous, 
and  that  there  is  a  great  variety  of  ores  besides  those  of  iron, 
and  which,  therefore,  cannot  be  distinguished  by  the  tests 
above  described.  These  he  will  learn  to  distinguish  by  me- 
thods to  be  described  hereafter.  At  present  we  will  confine 
ourselves  to  the  three  kinds  of  minerals  already  named,  and 
endeavour  to  find  the  means  of  identifying  the  several  varie- 
ties of  each  kind,  or  family,  with  one  another.* 

Suppose  the  learner  meets  with  a  number  of  stones,  or  frag- 
ments of  minerals,  the  names  of  which  he  does  not  know. 
He  begins  by  ascertaining  whether  any  of  them  will  scratch 
glass,  effervesce  with  acids,  or  attract  the  magnet.  If  there 
are  crystals  among  them,  he  had  better  neglect  these  until  he 
has  gained  some  knowledge  of  the  other  specimens.  The 
most  common  minerals  should  be  examined  first,  and  among 
these  will  almost  everywhere  be  found  those  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  quartz,  and  iron  ore. 

By  every  experiment  the  learner  makes,  he  will  acquire 
more  or  less  knowledge,  for  if  he  ascertains  only  what  the 
specimen  is  not,  he  takes  a  step  towards  ascertaining  what  it  is. 

The  most  common  colours  of  quartz  are  white,  yellowish 
white,  yellow,  reddish,  and  brown.  The  colours  of  carbonate 

*  The  pupil  is  advised  to  refer  to  the  Glossary,  for  every  technical  term 
which  he  does  not  understand. 

What  are  the  properties  common  to  all  the  varieties  of  carbonate  of 
lime?— What  are  the  common  properties  of  iron  ore? — How  does  the 
learner  begin  when  he  wishes  to  ascertain  unknown  minerals? — Which 
should  the  learner  first  examine,  the  common  or  rare  minerals  ? — What 
minerals  will  probably  occur  in  most  common  collections? — Does  the 
learner  ga:n  any  knowledge  by  ascertaining  what  a  mineral  is  not  ? — What 
are  the  most  common  colours  of  quartz? 
2 


14  INTRODUCTION  TO 

of  lime  are  white,  grayish  white,  red,  brown,  and  black. 
Sometimes  these  colours  are  variously  mixed,  forming  spots, 
stripes,  or  bands,  in  the  same  specimen,  as  is  often  seen  in  the 
polished  marbles,  which  are  all  of  them  varieties  of  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  varieties  of  the  two  families  may,  however,  be 
readily  distinguished  from  each  other,  by  the  hardness  of  the 
quartz  and  the  effervescence  of  the  lime,  as  already  described  ; 
and  the  iron  ore  will  as  readily  be  known  from  these,  by.  its 
weight,  colour,  and  magnetism. 

If  the  pupil  has  a  considerable  number  of  specimens  be- 
fore him,  and  undertakes  to  learn  the  names  of  each,  indis- 
criminately, he  will  soon  become  confused,  and  unless  he  has 
uncommon  perseverance  will  grow  fatigued,  and  discouraged. 
The  best  method,  therefore,  will  be  to  select  out  all  the  mine- 
rals of  certain  families,  or  kinds,  leaving  the  others  for  future 
examination.  Thus,  let  him  select  out  all  the  specimens 
which  scratch  glass,  then  all  those  which  effervesce  with  acids, 
and  then  all  such  as  are  magnetic,  and  let  each  kind  be  laid 
by  themselves.  Lastly,  let  all  the  crystals,  of  whatever  form, 
also  have  a  place  by  themselves.  Thus  the  pupil  will  have 
ascertained  which  are  probably  silicious  minerals,  which  are 
calcareous,  and  which  are  ferruginous,  or  belong  to  ores  of 
iron. 

His  next  step  will  be  to  inform  himself  what  are  the  species, 
or  varieties,  and  consequently  what  the  names  of  the  speci- 
mens in  each  division. 

QUARTZ. 

The  species,  quartz,  contains  a  considerable  variety  of  mine- 
rals, which  differ  from  each  other  in  many,  or  most,  of  their 
external  characters,  and  which  are  known  under  different 
names. 

Among  the  specimens  which  possess  the  vitreous  lustre, 
scratch  glass,  and  give  fire  with  steel,  one  may  be  white,  an- 
other brown,  another  green,  or  yellow,  &c.  Some  or  many 
of  these  may  be  the  result  of  crystallization,  for  there  is  no 
mineral  more  disposer!  to  form  crystals  than  quartz.  But 
neglecting  at  present  the  crystalline  forms,  we  proceed  to 
compare  our  specimens  with  the  sub-species  and  varieties  of 
quartz,  as  hereafter  described.  We  shall  include  within  the 
range  of  uncrystallized  quartz  the  varieties  of  chalcedony, 


What  are  the  common  colours  of  carbonate  of  lime  ? — What  is  said  con- 
cerning the  indiscriminate  examination  of  a  large  number  of  minerals? — 
How  is  the  learner  to  proceed  ?— What  is  said  about  the  disposition  of 
ojiartz  to  form  crystals  1 


MINERALOGY.  15 

oarnelian,  flint,  and  hornstone,  these  substances  having  the 
characters  of  quartz,  except  the  lustre,  which  is  not  so  deci- 
dedly vitreous. 

The  names  of  the  principal  varieties  of  quartz  are,  granu- 
lar quartz,  smoky  quartz,  fetid  quartz,  yellow  quartz,  brown 
quartz,  limpid  quartz,  milky  quartz,  rose  quartz,  ferruginous 
quirtz,  and  violet  quartz,  or  amethyst. 

The  pupil,  having  ascertained  by  the  directions  already 
given  that  his  specimen  belongs  to  the  quartz  family,  has  now 
only  t3  compare  it  with  the  descriptions  of  the  several  varie- 
ties of  that  substance  in  order  to  determine  its  name,  and 
leading  properties.  Thus  if  the  specimen  is  granular,  that  is, 
composed  of  fine  grains,  of  a  white  or  grayish  white  colour, 
and  massive,  that  is,  not  crystallized,  it  is  granular  quartz.  If 
the  specimen,  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  it  is  yellow  quartz,  or  cit- 
rine ;  if  of  a  rose  colour,  it  is  rose  quartz,  &c. 

Many  of  the  varieties  of  quartz  are  found  both  massive, 
(that  is,  uncrystallized,)  and  in  crystals ;  but  there  are  seve- 
ral varieties  of  stones  which  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
quartz,  or  silex,  which  always  occur  massive,  being  never 
found  in  the  form  of  crystals.  Now  as  minerals  are  arranged 
in  systematic  books,  according  to  their  chemical  compositions, 
and  not  according  to  their  external  characters  and  forms, 
these  varieties  are  included  in  the  quartz  family,  because, 
like  quartz,  they  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  earth 
called  silex.  These  varieties  also  agree,  in  many  of  their  ex- 
ternal characters,  with  the  description  of  quartz  already  given. 
They  scratch  glass,  give  fire  with  steel,  and  most  of  them  are 
more  or  less  transparent,  though,  as  already  stated,  they  want 
the  vitreous  or  glassy  lustre,  which  is  so  distinct  in  pure 
quartz.  These  species,  or  varieties,  are  flint,  chalcedony, 
opal,  and  carnelian. 

Flint  is  of  a  gray,  or  blackish  colour,  of  various  shades. 
Its  lustre  is  glimmering,  and  its  fracture  smooth  and  concave, 
the  fragments  being  sharp-edged.  It  is  found  in  rounded  no- 
dules in  chalk  beds,  and  hence  these  nodules  are  always  co- 
vered with  a  coat  of  chalk.  It  gives  lively  and  copious  sparks 
with  steel.  It  is  never  transparent,  but  generally  translucent 
in  thin  pieces. 

What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  varieties  of  quartz  ? — How  does 
the  student,  having  ascertained  that  his  specimen  belongs  to  the  quartz 
family,  proceed  to  find  its  name? — What  is  meant  by  granular  quartz? 
— How  are  minerals  arranged  in  systematic  books  ? — What  are  the  spe- 
cies of  uncrystallized  quartz  mentioned? — What  is  the  colour  of  flint'? 
What  its  fracture,  and  in  what  form  is  it  found  ? 


16  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chalcedojiy  is  characterized  by  a  milky,  or  cloudy  translu- 
concy,  when  held  between  the  eye  and  the  light,  the  colour 
being  similar  to  that  of  milk  diluted  with  water.  It  is  never 
transparent,  but  some  specimens,  or  parts  of  the  same  speci- 
men, are  more  translucent  than  others,  and  hence  its  clouded 
or  spotted  appearance. 

Cacholong  is  a  variety  of  chalcedony,  of  a  milk  white  co- 
lour, and  nearly  opake.  It  is  commonly  found  united  with 
chalcedony,  the  two  minerals' alternating  with  each  other  in 
layers,  in  the  same  specimen,  and  producing  stripes  or  zones, 
alternately  translucent  and  opaque. 

Carndiati  is  thus  named  because  its  colour  resembles  that 
of  flesh.  But  although  pale  red  is  one  of  its  most  conYmon 
colours,  it  is  sometimes  found  blood  red,  yellowish  red,  and 
nearly  white. 

Agate,  is  made  up  of  carnelian,  chalcedony,  cacholong,  and 
often  of  several  other  minerals  arranged  in  stripes,  dots,  zones, 
and  clouds,  of  different  .colours.  Each  variety  of  the  mineral 
of  which  it  is  composed  having  its  distinct  shade  of  colour, 
although  the  whole  are  joined  so  as  to  compose  a  single  piece. 

Agate  bears  a  high  polish,  and  exhibiting  such  a  variety  of 
colours,  is  often  a  very  beautiful  mineral.  It  is  in  common 
use  in  jewelry,  and  is  employed  for  the  tops  of  snuff-boxes, 
seals,  &c. 

Opal.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  mineral,  which 
differ  from  each  other  chiefly  in  respect  to  colour.  She  pre- 
cious opal  may  readily  be  known  by  the  variety  or  play  ot 
colours,  which  proceed  from  the  interior  of  the  stone,  as  it  is 
turned  in  different  directions  towards  the  light.  Common  opal 
is  of  a  milk-white  colour,  and  is  translucent.  It  emits  slight 
changes  of  colour  as  its  position  is  varied  in  respect  to  the 
light;  but  it  never  displays  that  beautiful  effulgence  of  the 
prismatic  rays  for  which  the  precious  opal  is  so  distinguished. 

There  are  still  many  species  of  minerals  not  belonging  to 
the  quartz  family,  which  scratch  glass,  and  give  fire  with 
steel.  These  will  be  described  in  their  proper  places,  and 
the  means  of  distinguishing  them  pointed  out. 

Having  given  this  short  account  of  the  quartz  family,  we 
will  resume  that  of  the  limestone  species. 

By  what  appearance  is  chalcedony  characterized  ?— How  may  cacho- 
lonsr  he  known  from  chalcedony? — Whence  does  carnelian  derive  its 
name? — What  is  the  colour  of  this  mineral? — Of  what  minerals  is  arato 
composed '? — What  is  the  appearance  of  agate,  and  what  its  colours  ? — What 
are  the  uses  of  agate? — How  may  the  precious  opal  be  known? — What 
*s  the  colour  of  common  opal  1 


MINERALOGY.  17 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

The  means  of  distinguishing  limestone,  or  carbonate  oi 
lime,  from  the  silicious  minerals,  and  both  these  from  the  ores 
of  iron,  have  already  been  pointed  out. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  on  some  accounts,  offers  one  of  the  most 
important  and  interesting  mineral  families  which  the  earth 
presents.  All  the  beautiful  marbles,  of  which  there  is  so 
great  a  variety  of  colours,  are  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  varieties  of  this  species  differ  greatly  in  respect  to 
form,  lustre,  transparency,  fracture,  and  colour,  but  we  have 
seen  that  they  all  agree  in  yielding  to  the  knife,  effervescing 
with  acids,  and  in  burning  to  quicklime  when  strongly 
heated. 

Some  of  the  principal  varieties  of  carbonate  of  lime  are 
common  limestone,  granular  limestone,  stalactite,  satin  spar, 
fetid  carbonate  of  lime,  chalk,  bituminous  limestone,  and  cal- 
careous tufa. 

Common,  or  compact  limestone.  The  colour  of  this  variety 
is  most  commonly  grayish  white,  or  yellowish.  Sometimes 
also  it  is  reddish,  bluish,  or  nearly  black.  Its  lustre  is  glim- 
mering, or  dull,  and  its  fracture  is  uneven.  This  is  a  com- 
mon rock,  and  in  some  countries  forms  mountains.  It  is 
burned  to  form  quicklime,  of  which  mortar  for  laying  bricks 
is  made. 

Granular  limestone.  This,  when  broken,  appears  to  be 
composed  of  small  grains,  or  crystals,  which  have  a  shining 
or  glimmering  lustre.  It  is  of  various  colours,  as  yellow, 
greenish,  brown,  and  black ;  but  the  most  common  colour  is 
white,  and  when  pure  its  fracture  very  nearly  resembles  that 
of  loaf  sugar.  This  is  the  kind  of  carbonate  of  lime  which  is 
so  extensively  employed  under  the  name  of  marble,  and  of 
which  statues,  monuments,  and  architectural  decorations,  are 
made. 

Stalactite.  This  variety  occurs  in  long,  tapering,  solid,  or 
nollow  concretions,  which  in  form  resemble  icicles.  Its 
cojour  is  commonly  yellow,  or  gray.  It  is  formed  by  the 
percolation  of  water  through  limestone  rocks,  which  thus 
becomes  impregnated  with  particles  of  lime.  As  the  water 
drops  slowly  through  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  into  the  cavern 

What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  limestone  family  ? — What  are  the 
names  of  some  of  the  principal  varieties  of  the  limestone  family  ? — What 
is  the  colour  and  appearance  of  common  limestone?— What  is  its  use? — 
What  is  the  appearance  of  granular  limestone? — To  what  important  uses 
is  this  species  applied  ? — In  what  form  does  stalactite  occur? 
2* 


18  INTRODUCTION  TO 

below,  it  evaporates,  and  leaves  the  particles  of  lime,  which, 
adhering  together,  form  the  stalactite.  Sometimes  the  broken 
limbs  of  trees  serve  to  conduct  the  water  from  the  roof  to  the 
floor  of  the  cavern,  and  thus  become  covered  with  a  crust  ol 
limestone. 

Satin  spar.  The  colour  of  this  beautiful  variety  is  white, 
or  yellowish  white.  It  consists  of  fine,  delicate  fibres,  ad- 
hering closely  together,  and  forming  compact  masses,  which, 
when  polished,  have  the  lustre  of  satin,  and  hence  its  name. 
It  is  commonly  found  in  thin  pieces,  encrusting  other  mine- 
rals, or  filling  their  crevices. 

Calcareous  spar.  This  variety  is  found  in  crystals,  and 
therefore  will  not  be  described  until  we  come  to  the  subject  of 
crystallization. 

Fetid  carbonate  of  lime  is  white,  or  grayish-white,  and 
does  not  differ  in  external  appearance  from  common  lime- 
stone. But  when  struck,  or  scratched  with  a  knife,  it  ex- 
hales a  most  offensive  odour,  resembling  that  of  rotten  eggs. 
This  is  owing  to  a  small  quantity  of  bitumen  which  it  con- 
tains. 

Chalk.  The  appearance  of  this  variety  is  well  known.  It 
effervesces  strongly  with  acids,  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and 
burns  to  quicklime.  It  is  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime. 

Calcareous  tufa.  Its  colour  is  gray,  brown,  or  yellowish. 
It  occurs  in  porous,  spongy  masses,  often  containing  leaves, 
sticks  of  wood,  pebbles,  and  other  impurities.  It  is  formed 
by  the  gradual  deposition  of  lime  from  the  water  of  springs, 
or  that  which  has  flowed  over  calcareous  rocks.  It  is  conse- 
quently un  impure  carbonate  of  lime,  containing  such  foreign 
materials  as  happen  to  fall  into  the  water  by  which  it  is  formed. 

IRON  ORE. 

The  ores  of  iron  are  the  third  family  of  minerals  which  we 
.propose  here  to  examine. 

The  varieties  of  this  ore  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them 
highly  interesting  to  the  mineralogist,  on  account  of  their 
great  beauty  of  colour,  or  natural  brilliancy.  Many  of  them 
are  magnetic,  that  is,  are  attracted  by  the  magnet  in  the  natu 
ral  state,  while  others,  being  combined  with  sulphur,  oxygen, 


How  is  this  variety  formed  ? — What  is  the  colour  of  satin  spar? — In 
what  situations  is  this  mineral  found  ? — How  does  fetid  carbonate  of  lime 
differ  from  common  limestone  1 — To  what  is  the  odour  of  this  species  at- 
tributed?—What  is  the  composition  of  chalk  ?— What  are  the  colours  of 
calcareous  tufa,  and  in  what  form  does  it  occur  ? — What  is  said  of  the  va* 
rieties  of  iron  ore  ? 


MINERALOGY.  19 

or  the  other  metals  m  large  proportions,  do  not  move  the  mag- 
net until  heated,  by  which  the  sulphur,  or  oxygen,  is  driven  off. 

The  most  common  magnetic  iron  ores  are  the  following, 
some  of  which  occur  in  crystals  :  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  spe- 
cular oxide  of  iron,  micaceous  oxide  of  iron,  brow7i  oxide  oj 
iron,  magnetic  sulphuret  of  iron.  Most  of  these  varieties  pos- 
sess more  or  less  of  the  metallic  lustre,  and  considerable 
weight,  or  specific  gravity. 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron.  This  species  is  found  in  crystals 
of  an  iron  black  colour,  and  often  with  considerable  lustre. 
It  also  occurs  in  masses,  in  thin  plates,  and  in  the  state  of 
sand.  Some  specimens  of  this  ore  attract  iron,  and  when  sus- 
pended by  a  string  will  turn  one  of  their  sides  to  the  north,  thus 
being  natural  magnets. 

Native  iron.  This  variety  is  found  in  masses,  and  nearly 
resembles  wrought  iron.  It  is  malleable,  and  may  be  welded 
like  purified  iron.  It  however  is  not  pure,  but  contains  mi- 
nute quantities  of  lead,  or  copper.  It  has  only  been  found  in 
a  few  places  and  in  small  quantities. 

Micaceous  oxide  of  iron.  This  is  of  an  iron  black  colour, 
and  is  found  in  masses  composed  of  thin  lamina?,  or  layers, 
which  are  easily  separable  from  each  other,  often  with  the 
finger  nail.  In  very  thin  pieces  it  permits  the  light  to  shine 
through  it,  and  then  appears  of  a  blood  red  colour. 

Specular  oxide  of  iron.  This  beautiful  variety  occurs  in 
crystals,  the  forms  of  which  will  be  described  in  another  place. 
Some  of  these  crystals  possess  the  polish  of  burnished  steel; 
others  are  tarnished,  and  appear  of  a  red,  blue,  or  yellow  co- 
lour. Sometimes  all  these  colours  will  be  seen  on  the  differ- 
ent faces  of  the  same  crystal.  The  crystals,  which  are  po- 
lished by  the  hand  of  nature,  are  not  liable  to  rust,  but  hold 
their  brightness  from  year  to  year  without  change. 

Broivn  oxide  of  iron.  The  colours  of  this  species  are 
brown,  blackish  brown,  or  yellowish  brown.  It  is  found  in 
masses  which  are  nodular,  or  amorphous.  Externally  these 
masses  present  smooth  polished  surfaces  of  a  black  colour, 
appearing  as  though  they  had  been  carefully  smoothed  and 
then  varnished  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  fracture  presents 
a  fibrous  structure,  with  an  earthy  aspect.  The  powder  of 


What  magnetic  ores  of  iron  are  mentioned? — What  is  the  colour  of 
magnetic  oxide  of  iron? — What  peculiar  and  valuable  property  has  this 
ore  ? —  What  is  said  of  native  iron  ? — What  is  the  form  of  micaceous  oxide 
of  iron? — What  is  said  of  the  form  and  appearance  of  specular  oxide  of 
iron  ? — What  is  said  of  brown  oxide  of  iron  ? 


20  INTRODUCTION  TO 

this  mineral  is  always  brown,  and  it  is  seldom  magnetic  unless 
first  heated  on  charcoal. 

Magnetic  sulphuret  of  iron.  The  colour  of  this  species  is 
yellowish  with  a  tinge  of  red,  being  of  a  shade  between  the 
colours  of  brass  and  copper.  It  is  found  in  masses,  and  some- 
times, though  rarely,  in  crystals.  Its  lustre  is  somewhat  me- 
tallic, but  it  turns  brown  by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  mag- 
netism of  this  species  is  a  remarkable  property,  it  being  the 
only  native  compound  of  sulphur  and  iron  which  moves  the 
magnet  in  its  natural  state.  This  property  is  probably  owing 
to  small  particles  of  iron  existing  in  the  mineral,  which  are 
not  combined  with  the  sulphur. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  iron  ore,  which,  as  has 
already  been  staled,  do  not  attract  the  magnet  until  they  have 
been  heated  on  charcoal  with  the  blow  pipe.  Among  these 
are  the  following,  viz.  argillaceous  oxide  of  iron,  red  oxide 
of  iron,  and  bog  iron  ore. 

The  argillaceous  oxide,  is  sometimes  called  clay  iron  stone. 
because  it  is  in  part  composed  of  clay.  Its  colours  are  gray, 
bluish  brown,  and  dull  red.  It  occurs  in  masses  of  various 
shapes ;  sometimes  in  flat  irregular  pieces,  and  sometimes  in 
globular,  or  rounded  masses.  It  is  without  lustre,  has  an 
earthy  fracture,  may  be  scratched  with  a  knife,  and  often  ad- 
heres to  the  tongue. 

Red  oxide  of  iron.  Its  colour  is  reddish  brown,  but  its 
powder  is  blood  red,  or  dark  reddish  brown.  Its  aspect  is 
dull,  but  somewhat  metallic,  and  when  broken  its  texture  ap- 
pears fibrous,  and  often  radiated.  A  variety  of  this  ore  is 
called  red  haematite  or  blood  stone,  and  is  employed  in  polish- 
ing buttons. 

Bog  iron  ore.  This  is  the  most  common  of  all  the  ores  of 
iron.  Its  colours  are  yellowish  brown,  and  reddish  gray ;  its 
fracture  is  uneven,  lustre  dull  and  earthy,  and  it  is  often  so 
soft  as  to  be  rubbed  to  powder  between  the  fingers.  Some- 
times it  appears  spongy  or  porous,  as  though  it  had  been 
melted.  This  ore  appears  to  be  a  deposite  from  water  which 
comes  from  beds  of  iron  ore,  and  therefore  is  constantly  form- 
ing in  the  earth. 

Having  now  described  a  few  of  the  varieties  of  quartz, 


What  is  the  colour  of  the  magnetic  sulphuret  of  iron? — What  is  said  to 
cause  the  magnetic  property  of  this  species? — What  is  the  appearance  of 
argillaceous  oxide  of  iron  ? — In  what  forms  does  it  occur? — What  is  the 
coLur  of  red  oxide  of  iron  ? — What  is  the  use  of  the  ore  ? — Is  bog  iron  ore 
a  rare,  or  a  common  mineral  ? 


MINERALOGY.  21 

carbonate  of  lime,  and  iron  ore,  we  will  in  the  next  place  en- 
deavour to  point  out  the  means  of  distinguishing  some  of  their 
crystalline  forms  from  each  other. 

Substances  crystallize  under  a  great  variety  of  forms,  but 
it  is  a  wonderful  feet,  that  all  crystals  composed  of  the  same 
kind  of  matter  have  exactly  the  same  forms.  Thus  common 
salt,  when  dissolved  in  water,  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
water  evaporates,  forms  cubes,  or  square  crystals ;  and  it  will 
be  found,  on  examination,  that  these  crystals,  whatever  their 
size  may  be,  have  all  of  them  precisely  the  same  figure.  The 
like  regularity  is  observed  with  respect  to  all  crystalline  sub- 
stances, each  substance  having  a  certain  form  under  which  it 
always  appears,  wherever  ii  is  found.  Some  crystals,  how- 
ever, are  subject  to  what  mineralogists  call  modified  forms, 
that  is,  to  slight  changes  in  their  forms,  a  subject  which  will 
receive  attention  in  another  place. 

To  investigate  and  describe  the  forms  of  crystalline  bodies, 
is  the  object  of  Crystallography,  which  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting branches  of  the  science  of  Mineralogy. 

The  different  parts  of  a  crystal  have  different  names,  oth- 
•rwise  no  precise  ideas  could  be  conveyed  in  writing  or  speak- 
ing, of  their  forms  as  a  whole.  The  terms  employed  for  this 
purpose  are  few  in  number  and  are  easily  understood. 

Let  the  student  in  the  first  place  make  the  model  of  a  crys- 
tal, by  cutting  a  piece  of  pine  wood  into  the  form  of  an  oblong 
square,  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  the  third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  At  one  end  leave  the  wood  at  right  angles  with 
the  sides,  so  that  it  will  stand  on  that  end  when  set  upright  on 
a  flat  surface.  Then  form  a  pyramid  at  the  opposite  end  by 
cutting  away  the  wood  at  a  short  distance  from  the  extremity, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  four  angles  which  meet  at  a 
point,  and  four  oblique  triangular  faces,  which  shall  corres- 
pond with  the  four  faces  of  the  oblong  square.  Then  there 
will  be  formed  a  quadrangular  or  four-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  a  four-sided  pyramid,  the  faces  of  the  pyramid  being  set  on 
the  lateral  faces  of  the  prism. 

Are  all  the  crystals  of  the  same  substance  of  the  same  form  ? — What  is 
Baid  of  the  crystallization  of  common  salt  1 — What  is  said  of  modified 
forms? — What  is  the  object  of  Crystallography? — What  is  said  of  the 
necessity  of  naming  the  different  parts  of  a  crystal  ? — How  is  the  student 
to  make  the  model  of  a  crystal?— How  is  the  pyramid  to  be  formed  7— 
What  is  the  name  of  the  crystal  so  formed? 


/As 


22  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Such  a  crystal  is  represented  by  fig.  1.  The  names 
of  its  several  parts  are  as  follows.  Lateral  planes  are 
the  four  long  sides  or  faces  of  the  prism  a.  These  four 
sides  make  the  body  of  the  crystal. 

Terminal  places  are  the  triangular  planes  or  faces 
by  which  the  crvstal  is  terminated,  marked  o.  The  four 
terminal  planes  Meet  at  the  same  point  and  form  the 
pyramid  of  the  ci  ystal. 

Lateral  edges  i  re  the  four  edges  of  the  crystal,  and 
are  formed  by  the  neeting  of  the  lateral  planes. 

Terminal  edges  ,-re  the  angles  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  the  triangula*  planes  of  the  pyramid. 
The  most  common  perfe<  >,  crystals  to  be  obtained,  are  those 
of  quartz,  or  rock  crystal.  These  are  six-sided  prisms  termi- 
nated by  six-sided  pyramids.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  such 
crystals  perfect  at  both  extrein (*.:&?,  and  as  colourless  and  as 
highly  polished  as  the  finest  glui'3.  Such  a  crystal  is  repre- 
sented by  fig.  2. 

Fig.  2.  This  form  is,  however,  c<ten  modified  in  snch  a 
manner  as  greatly  to  affeci  its  appearance.  Some- 
times two  opposite  faces  are  so  broad,  and  the  others 
consequently  so  narrow,  as  to  eive  the  crystal  a  flat- 
tened shape,  and  at  the  same  time  o.ie  of  the  faces  of 
the  pyramid  will  be  so  large  as  to  give  the  terrain ati("<i 
the  appearance  of  obliquity,  as  represented  by  fig.  3 

When  crystals  of  quartz  are  implant- 
ed in  groups,  with  their  lower  extremi- 
ties attached  to  some  other  substance,  or 
to  each  other,  as  is  often  the  case,  then 
only  one  extremity,  with  perhaps  a  part 
of  the  prism,  is  perfect,  as  in  fig.  3. 

Fig.  4.  Sometimes  the  prism  is  so  short  ihat  the  ryn 
mids  nearly  meet,  there  remaining  only  the  rem 
nant  of  a  prism  between  them.  In  other  cases 
tHe  prism  entirely  disappears,  leaving  the  crysta 
a  double  six-sided  pyramid,  or  two  six-sided  pyra 
mids  joined  base  to  base,  as  represented  by 
fig.  4. 

What  does  fig.  1  represent  ?— What  are  the  lateral  planes ?— Which  is 
the  body  of  the  crystal? — Which  are  the  terminal  planes? — How  is  the 
pyramid  of  the  crystal  formed? — Which  are  the  cages?— Which  the  ter- 
minal edges? — What  mineral  generally  affords  the  most  perfect  crystals? 
•—What  is  the  form  of  crystallized  quartz?— Why  do  crystals  of  quartz 
often  appear  oblique  ?— What  is  the  form  of  fig.  4 1 


MINERALOGY.  23 

Having  examined  some  of  the  crystalline  forms  belonging 
to  quartz,  we  will  now  compare  them  with  such  forms  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  as  they  most  resemble,  so  that  the  pupil  will  be 
enabled  to  distinguish  the  difference. 

Crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime  sometimes  consist  of  two  six- 
sided  pyramids,  joined  base  to  base,  forming  solids  with  the 
same  number  of  sides,  and  of  a  similar  shape  with  the  crystal 
of  quartz  just  described,  fig.  4.  But  the  figures  of  the  planes, 
or  faces,  of  which  the  pyramids  are  composed,  are  different  in 
the  two  minerals.  In  the  quartz  the  line  forming  the  base  of 
each  triangular  face  of  the  pyramid  is  horizontal,  making  the 
two  angles  at  each  side  of  the  base  equal  to  each  other,  giving 
the  form  of  each  face  that  of  an  isosceles  triangle. 

In  the  crystal  of  carbonate  of  lime,  fig.  5,  the  bases 
of  the  triangular  planes  are  formed  by  oblique,  instead 
of  horizontal  lines,  making  the  two  angles  at  the  base 
unequal,  each  face  having  the  form  of  a  scalene  tri- 
angle. By  comparing  fig.  4  and  5,  this  difference  will 
be  obvious. 

The  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime  just  described, 
are  quite  common,  and  are  familiarly  known  under 
the  name  of  hog's  tooth  spar.     These  crystals  are 
most  commonly  grouped,  or  set  so  near  each  other,  that  only 
one  of  the  pyramids  are  distinct,  as  in  fig.  6. 
Fig.  6. 

These  crystals  appear  in  their  general  out- 
line to  be  three-sided  pyramids,  but  on  closer 
inspection,  each  side  will  be  found  to  contain 
two  faces,  inclined  to  each  other  undera  cer- 
tain angle. 

Fig.  7.  Another  crystalline  form  under  which  carbonate  of 
lime  appears,  is  that  of  a  six-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  a  low  pyramid,  consisting  of  pentagonal,  or  five- 
sided  faces,  fig.  7.  These  crystals  are  also  most 
commonly  implanted  in  groups  so  that  only  one  of 
their  pyramids  can  be  distinguished. 

CRYSTALS  OF  IRON. 
The  crystalline  forms  of  iron,  together  with  the  colour  and 

Do  the  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  those  of  quartz  resemble 
each  other  ?— What  is  the  figure  of  the  plane,  forming  a  face  of  a  pyramid 
of  quartz?— What  is  the  figure  of  any  face  of  which  a  pyramid  of  carbo- 
nate of  lime  is  formed  ?— How  do  the  bases  of  these  two  figures  differ  1 
How  many  faces  has  a  pyramid  of  carbonate  <?f  lime  ?— What  does  fig.  7 
represent  7 


24  INTRODUCTION  TO 

metallic  lustre  which  they  present,  differ  so  widely  from  those 
of  the  crystals  we  have  already  described,  that  the  student 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  them  from  the  quartz 
and  carbonate  of  lime.  These  will  therefore  be  described  in 
"mother  place. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 

There  is  little  difficulty,  as  we  have  already  seen,  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  common  minerals  from  each  other,  and  espe- 
cially where  there  is  so  much  difference  between  them  as  there 
is  between  quartz,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  the  ores  of  iron. 
But  there  are  many  minerals,  as  before  observed,  which  scratch 
glass  and  give  fire  with  steel,  besides  the  varieties  of  quartz ; 
and  in  addition  to  the  characters  belonging  to  this  species  and 
to  those  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  iron,  there  are  peculiarities 
which  appertain  to  other  species,  not  included  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  these. 

It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  before  we  proceed  further 
in  the  practical,  or  demonstrative  part  of  mineralogy,  to  define 
more  particularly  than  we  have  done,  the  principles  of  this 
science. 

None  of  the  characters  belonging  to  minerals,  are  so  im- 
portant in  a  practical  relation  as  their  crystalline  forms;  for  as 
these  forms,  or  their  modifications,  are  peculiar,  or  nearly  so, 
to  each  species,  there  is  often  nothing  more  wanted  to  distin- 
guish one  mineral  from  another  with  the  greatest  certainty, 
than  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  between  the  forms  of  their 
crystals. 

Now  although  there  are  a  vast  variety  of  forms  under  which 
the  crystals  of  different  substances  appear,  yet  on  close  ex- 
amination it  is  found,  that  all  these  are  only  modifications  of  a 
few  predominant,  or  fundamental  forms,  and  to  which  they 
may  all  be  traced. 

To  make  this  understood,  we  will  take  the  cube,  which  is  a 
common  form,  as  an  example.  If  we  take  a  long,  square 
piece  of  wood,  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  cut  off  an  inch 
from  its  end,  we  shall  have  a  solid,  called  the  cube.  The 
cube  has  six  faces,  or  planes,  eight  solid  angles,  and  twelve 
edges.  Now  if  we  cut  off  each  of  the  eight  solid  angles,  or 
corners,  we  shall  have  a  figure  bounded  by  fourteen  faces  in- 

What  is  said  of  the  crystalline  forms  of  iron?— What  is  said  of  the 
practical  use  of  crystallography  ?— What  is  said  of  distinguishing  minerals 
by  their  crystalline  forms  ? — How  many  faces,  solid  angles,  and  edges  has 
the  cube? — Jf  the  eight  corners  be  cut  off,  how  many  faces  will  the  figure 
have'? 


MINERALOGY.  25 

stead  of  six  faces  as  before.  But  still  the  predominating  form 
of  this  solid  would  be  that  of  the  cube,  because  a  proportion 
of  the  six  original  faces  would  remain,  and  the  whole  figure 
would  still  resemble  the  form  of  a  cube  more  nearly  than  that 
of  any  other  figure  with  which  the  mind  is  familiar.  An  idea 
of  such  a  figure  would  therefore  be  most  readily  conveyed  by 
describing  it  as  a  cube  with  all  its  solid  angles  truncated  or 
cutoff 

The  same  method  is  followed  with  respect  to  other  crystal- 
line forms ;  that  mathematical  figure  which  it  most  resembles 
being  selected  as  the  foundation  of  the  description,  and  then 
the  deviations  from  this  form  pointed  out. 

PREDOMINANT  FORMS  or  CRYSTALS. 

On  the  examination  of  a  vast  variety  of  crystals,  including 
all  the  forms  which  are  known  to  occur,  it  has  been  found 
that  their  predominating  forms  may  be  reduced  to  seven,  and 
consequently  that  from  these,  all  the  actual  forms  which  occur, 
arise  by  various  modifications. 

The  predominant  forms  of  crystals  are  the  following,  viz. 
the  prism,  hexahedron,  pyramid,  dodecahedron,  icosahedron, 
table,  and  lens. 

Fig.  8.  The  prism,  fig.  8,  has  any  number  of  sides  or  lateral 
planes,  from  three  to  nine,  or  more.  It  is  the  most 
common  of  all  ths  predominant  figures.  Examples, 
quartz,  schorl,  beryl,  calcareous  spar,  &c.  The  prism 
is  sometimes  many  inches  in  length,  and  is  commonly 
terminated  by  a  pyramid  at  one  or  both  extremities,  but 
it  is  sometimes  so  short  as  merely  to  separate  the  bases 
of  the  two  pyramids,  as  already  noticed  when  speaking 
of  quartz. 
Fig.  9. 

The  hexahedron,  or  six-sided  figure,  fig.  9, 
is  a  solid  with  six  equal  faces  and  eight  solid  an- 
gles. It  therefore  includes  the  cube  and  the 
rhomb,  fig.  10. 


What  will  be  the  predominant  form  after  the  removal  of  the  corners  1 
— What  is  meant  by  predominant  forms? — How  many  predominant  forms 
are  there'] — What  are  the  names  of  these  forms.? — How  many  sides  has 
the  prism  ? — What  minerals  afford  examples? — What  is  said  of  the  length 
of  the  prism  ? — How  many  sides  has  the  hexahedron  7 

3 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig.  10 


Fig.  10,  the  acute  rhomb,  is  sometimes  described 
as  a  double  three-sided  pyramid,  in  which  the  lateral 
planes  of  one,  are  set  on  the  lateral  edges  of  the 
other.  The  crystals  of  carbonate  of  lime  assume 
both  these  forms. 


Fig.  11. 


The  pyramid,  fig.  11,  like  the  prism,  has  an 
indefinite  number  of  sides,  or  triangular  planes, 
converging  to  a  point,  which  is  called  the  sum- 
mit, or  apex.  The  wide  part  opposite  to  the 
summit  is  called  the  base  of  the  pyramid.  The 
pyramid  is  usually  set  on  the  top  of  a  prism. 
This  figure  is  very  common.  Ex.  quartz,  eme- 
rald, carbonate  of  lime,  &c. 

Fig.  12.  ,;*  "' 


Fig.  13. 


fig.  12,   has  twelve  pen- 
,  or  five-sided  faces,  and  twenty  solid  an- 
gles.    This  figure   is   rare.     Ex.    garnet,  and 
sulphuret  of  iron. 

The  icosahedron,  fig.  13,  is  a  solid,  bounded 
by  twenty  triangular  planes  and  twelve  solid  an- 
gles, so  that  each  solid  angle  is  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  five  planes,  as  may  be  observed  on 
inspecting  the  figure.  Example,  iron  pyrites. 

Fig.  14.  The  table,  fio-.  14,  may  be  considered  a  very 

short  prism.  It  has  two  broad  faces  or  planes, 
opposite  to  each  other,  which  are  surrounded  by 
an  indeterminate  number  of  smaller  planes. 
These  planes  may  be  at  right  angles  with  the 
principal  faces,  or  not.  .A  thin  section  from  the  end  of  the 
prism,  fig.  8,  would  form  i  four-sided  table.  This  figure  oc- 
curs but  rarely.  Ex.  sulphate  of  barytes,  mica. 

In  an  extensive  examination  of  crystalline  bodies,  a  great 
variety  of  modifications*  of  these  predominant,  or  fundamental 

—  ______  -  _:  -  zi  _  . 

What  is  the  form  of  figflO  ?—  What  number  of  sides  has  the  pyramid  7 

—  Which  is  the  base  and  which  the  apex  of  this  figure  ?  —  How  many  faces 
has  the  dodecahedron  ?  —  What  form  has  the  icosahedron?  —  What  mineral 
occurs  in  the  form  of  fig.  13  ?—  What  is  the  form  of  the  figure  called  the 
table  ?—  What  are  examples  of  this  figure  1 


MINERALOGY.  27 

forms,  will  be  found  to  occur,  though  it  is  believed  that  few, 
if  any,  will  be  found,  which  may  not  be  referred  to  one  of  the 
figures  described  above.  The  number  of  changes  which  may 
take  place  in  some  of  them,  and  still  the  predominating  form 
be  obvious,  are  very  numerous.  Thus  the  prism  may  have 
the  least  possible  number  of  sides,  which  is  three,  or  it  may 
have  twelve  or  more,  and  some  of  these  faces  may  be  broad 
and  others  narrow,  and  still  the  figure  maybe  that  of  a  prism. 
The  length  of  the  prism  may  also  be  only  the  twelfth  of  an 
inch,  or  it  may  be  a  foot,  or  more. 

The  hexahedron  has  six  equal  faces,  but  these  may  be  at 
right  angles  with  each  other,  as  in  the  cube,  or  they  may  be 
oblique,  as  in  the  rhomboid,  fig.  10. 

The  pyramid  occurs  with  three,  four,  six,  or  eight  sides,  all 
ending  at  the  same  point. 

The  pyramid  is  also  often  double,  that  is,  two 
pyramids  are  joined  base  to  base,  as  already -no- 
ticed. Fig.  15  is  a  double  four-sided  pyramid, 
forming  an  eight-sided  figure  called  a  regular 
octahedron. 

Fig.  16  is  a  solid  with  twelve  equal  sides, 
called  a  dodecahedron,  and  is  formed  by  joining 
two  six-sided  pyramids  base  to  base.  Examples 
of  the  first  kind^are  found  in  the  diamond,  zircon, 
and  fluor  spar,  and  of  the  second  in  quartz,  ame- 
thyst, and  carbonate  of  lime. 

The   table,  fig.   17,  like  the  prism,  has  any 

/""         "~\   number  of  sides  from  three  to  twelve.     This  fig- 

>CI  m^-^  ure  ^  a  six-sided  table.     A  great  variety  of  other 

modifications  will  be  found  to  occur 

It  is  supposed,  as  remarked  above,  that  to  one  or  the  other 
of  these  predominating  forms,  all  the  actual  forms  under  which 
crystals  occur  may  be  referred.  But  it  requires  an  experi- 
enced eye  to  detect  the  traces  of  these  predominating  forms  in 
every  instance.  Crystals  are  frequently  so  changed  in  their 
appearance,  in  consequence  of  truncation  and  bevelment,  that 
only  slight  traces  of  their  predominant  figures  remain. 

What  is  said  concerning  the  modifications  of  fundamental  forms?  How 
may  the  prism  be  modified  ?  How  may  the  planes  of  the  hexahedron 
vary?  What  regular  figure  is  formed  by  joining  two  four-sided  pyramids 
base  to  base?  What  solid  is  formed  by  joining  two  six-sided  pyramids  in 
the  same  manner  ?  How  many  sides  may  the  table  have  ? 


29  INTRODUCTION  TO 

TRUNCATION. 

By  truncation  is  meant,  that  certain  edges,  or  angles  of  the 
crystal  are  cut  off,  or  replaced  by  planes.  If  we  take  a  cube 
of  wood  and  cut  off  all  its  corners,  we  shall  have  a  cube  with 
all  its  solid  angles  truncated,  and  replaced  by  planes. 

Now,  although  it  is  not  probable  that  nature  works  in  this 
manner,  first  completing  and  then  mutilating  her  performan- 
ces, yet  the  appearance  of  the  crystal,  and  the  idea  it  is  wished 
to  convey,  are  precisely  the  same  as  though  this  had  actually- 
been  done. 

Some  crystals  are  truncated  but  slightly,  and  only  on  their 
edges  or  angles,  while  others  are  so  deeply  truncated  as  to 
entirely  change  their  appearance.  Sometimes  only  the  an- 
gles or  sharp  edges  are  taken  off;  in  other  instances  the  half 
of  a  pyramid  will  be  found  wanting. 

Fig.  13.  Fig..  18  represents  an  octohedron,  or  double 

four-sided  pyramid,  with  all  its  edges  slightly 
truncated,  forming  narrow  planes  instead  of 
edges.  By  comparing  this  fig.  with  fig.  15,  the 
difference  caused  by  slight  truncation  will  be  ob- 
served, the  predominating  form  remaining  the  same  in  both 
cases.  Examples  of  this  kind  of  truncation  occur  in  native 
gold,  red  oxide  of  copper,  and  sulphuret  of  zinc. 

Fig.  19  represents  a  crystal  of  black  oxide  of 

"      uranium,  which,  if  perfect,  would  consist  of  an 

octohedron,  or  double  four-sided  pyramid.  But 
'both  pyramids  are  so  deeply  truncated  as  to  form 
a  table  rather  than  an  octohedron.  The  edges 
being  also  truncated,  the  whole  has  but  little  resemblance  to 
the  predominating  form.  But  still,  on  careful  examination,  it 
will  be  obvious^frorn  the  broad  faces  remaining  of  each  pyra- 
mid, that  the  octohedron  is  the  predominant  figure,  notwith- 
standing these  apparent  mutilations. 

BEVELMENT. 

Bevelment,  like  truncation,  is  applied  to  the  edges  and  an 
gles  of  crystals.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  double  truncation, 
producing  on  the  perfect  crystal,  two  new  planes,  and  three 
obtuse  angles,  instead  of  one  edge  or  angle.  If  we  take  a 

What  is  meant  by  truncation  ?— How  may  truncation  be  illustrated  by 
a  figure  of  wood  ?— What  is  observed  concerning  the  degrees  of  trunca- 
tion 1— Explain  fig.  18.— What  minerals  present  examples  of  this  kind  of 
truncation  ?— Explain  the  change  produced  in  fig.  19  by  truncation— Ex- 
plain what  is  meant  by  bevelment. 


MINERALOGY.  29 

four-sided  prism  of  wood,  and  with  a  knife  shave  off  the  edge, 
and  a  part  of  the  two  contiguous  lateral  planes  obliquely,  so  as 
to  form  two  new  planes,  which  meet  and  form  a  new  edge,  we 
shall  have  an  example  of  bevelment. 

This  change  is  not  so  common  as  that  produced  by  trunca- 
tion. It  o-enerally  affects  the  edges,  sometimes  the  terminal 
planes,  and  occasionally  the  corners  or  solid  angles  of  crystals. 
Figure  20  represents  an  octohedron,  or 
double  four-sided  pyramid,  bevelled  on  all 
its  edges  and  angles  ;  the  three  lines  show- 
ing that  two  new  faces  and  three  new  angles 
have  been  formed  on  the  planes  of  each 
pyramid.  This  modification  will  become 
more  apparent,  by  comparing  fig.  20  with 
fig.  15,  which  is  an  octohedron  with  all  its  edges  and  angles 
entire.  Examples,  galena,  and  fluor  spar. 
Fig.  21. 

Sometimes  the  solid  angles,  or  corners  only, 
are  bevelled,  while  the  edges  remain  entire. 
Fior.  21  represents  a  crystal  of  galena,  or  sul- 
phuret  of  lead,  in  illustration  of  such  a  change. 

In  these  examples  it  may  D&  observed  'that  the  bevelling 
process  has  only  effected  the  angles  of  the  crystals,  while  the 
predominating  octohedron  forms  the  chief  outline  of  each  fig- 
ure. The  change  of  figure  is  therefore  not  so  great  as  is  often 
produced  by  truncation. 

PRIMITIVE  FORMS  OF  CRYSTALS. 

By  primitive  form  is  meant  the  nucleus,  or  basis  of  the  crys- 
tal, and  which  is  often  concealed  within  the  secondary,  or  ex- 
ternal form.  The  primitive  form  may,  or  may  not,  be  the 
same  with  the  external  form.  In  most  instances  they  differ 
widely  from  each  other.  In  the  formation,  or  growth  of  the 
crystal,  the  primitve  form  is  supposed  to  be  first  produced, 
and  the  secondary  form  to  arise  from  the  deposition  of  parti- 
cles on  this.  In  this  manner  the  secondary  form  either  en- 
tirely conceals  the  primary,  or,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
leaves  one  or  more  of  its  faces  visible. 


How  may  bevelment  be  illustrated  by  art? — Explain  the  change  pro- 
duced in  fig.  20  by  bevelment — What  examples  occur  of  fig.  20? — Explain 
fig.  21 — What  examples? — What  is  meant  by  primitive"  form? — Is  the 
primitive  form  the  same  with  the  external  form  ? — Explain  how  the  primitive 
form  is  concealed  by  the  secondary. 
3* 


30  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Whatever  may  be  the  external  form,  each  primitive  is  al- 
ways found  to  exist  under  precisely  the  same  angles,  and  the 
same  primitive  is  found  to  be  the  basis  of  many  species  of 
minerals,  differing  entirely  in  composition  from  each  other. 
As  the  primitive  forms,  throughout  the  mineral  kingdom, 
amount  only  to  six  in  number,  it  is  obvious  that  man  v  crystals, 
though  differing  in  all  respects  from  each  other,  must  have 
the  same  primitive.  Thus  the  cube  is  the  primitive  form  of  the 
crystals  of  muriate  of  soda,  or  common  salt,  and  also  of  the 
sulphurets  of  leal  and  iron.  The  octohedron  is  the  primitive 
of  the  diamond,  fluate  of  lime,  spinelle,  and  the  red  oxide  of 
copper. 

The  following  are  the  primitive  forms,  viz.  the  parallelopi- 
ped,  octohedron,  tetrahedron,  hexahedral  prism,  dodecahedron, 
with  triangular  faces,  and  dodecahedron  with  rhombic  faces. 
Fig.  22.  The parellelopiped,  fig.  22,  includes  the  cube, 

the  four-sided  prism,  the  rhomb,  or  any  other 
figure  having  six  faces,  the  two  opposite  ones 
being  parallel  with  each  other.  When  its  angles 
are  equal  in  every  direction,  and  the  size  of  its 
planes  alike,  it  is  the  cube.  When  this  figure  is 
extended  so  as  to  make  the  length  greater  than 
the  breadth,  it  becomes  a  four-sided  prism,  and  when  the  an- 
gles are  oblique,  that  is,  alternately  acute  and  obtuse,  it  is  a 
rhomb. 

Fig.  23.  The  octohedron,  fig.  23,  has  eight  triangular 

faces,  four  of  which  meet  at  points  opposite  to 
each  other.  This  figure  is  therefore  sometimes 
described  as  two  four-sided  pyramids  joined 
base  to  base.  It  is  subject  to  various  modifica- 
tions. Thus  the  two  pyramids  may  be  depress- 
ed or  elongated.  The  base  may  be  square,  or 
oblique,  or  the  faces  of  the  pyramids  may  be  scalene,  or  isos- 
celes triangles.  Examples,  red  oxide  of  copper,  native  lead. 

The  regular  tetrahedron,  fig.  24,  is  a  solid 
contained  under  fou  r  similar  equilateral  triangles, 
and  is  riot  subject  to  any  variety  of  form.  Ex- 
amples, gray  sulphuret  of  copper,  sulphuret  of 
zinc. 


Is  the  same  primitive  form,  the  basis  of  several  secondary  forms  1 — How 
many  primitive  forms  are  there,  and  what  are  these  forms? — What  are  the 
forms  included  under  the  parallelepiped  ? — How  is  the  octohedron  modifi- 
ed?— Where  do  examples  occur? — What  is  the  form  of  the  regular  tetra- 
nedron,  and  what  examples  occur  of  this  form  ? 


MINERALOGY. 


31 


The  regular  hexahedral  prism,  fig".  25,  is  a 
solid  contained  under  eight  planes.  It  is  a  six- 
sided  prism,  bounded  by  a  terminal  plane  at  each 
end.  This  figure  is  variable  in  the  proportions 
between  the  length,  or  height  of  the  prism,  and 
the  extent,  or  diameter  of  the  terminal  planes. 


Fig.  26. 


The  dodecahedron  with  rhombic  faces,  fig. 
26,  is  a  solid  contained  under  twelve  rhombic 
planes,  all  similar  to  each  other,  and  is  not  sub- 
ject to  any  variety  of  form.  Example,  garnet. 


Fig.  27. 


The  dodecahedron  with  triangular  faces,  fig. 
27,  is  bounded  by  twelve  triangular  planes,  and 
is  sometimes  described  as  two  six-sided  pyra- 
mids joined  base  to  base.  It  is  variable  in  the 
proportions  of  the  height  of  the  pyramids  and  the 
diameter  of  the  base.  Ex.  quartz. 


MOST    COMMON    FORMS    OF    CRYSTALS. 

The  pupil  in  Mineralogy,  will  find  his  progress  greatly 
facilitated,  by  acquiring,  in  this  place,  such  a  knowledge 
of  Crystallography  as  to  be  able  to  understand  and  explain 
the  following  figures.  For  this  purpose  let  him  take  any  soft 
substance,  as  a  piece  of  pine  wood,  and  with  a  knife  form  the 
solid  figures  as  he  proceeds.  In  this  way  he  will  at  once  ob- 
tain more  correct  ideas  than  could  be  conveyed  by  the  most 
laboured  descriptions. 


Fig.  28. 


The  Regular  Tetrahedron.  This  figure 
is  bounded  by  four  oblique  planes  or  faces, 
and  has  four  points,  or  solid  angles,  and  six 
edges. 


Describe  the  form  of  the  hexahedral  prism — How  many  faces  has  the 
dodecahedron  ? — How  do  the  figures  26  and  27  differ  1 — What  varieties  of 
fig.  27  occur  ? 


32 


Fig.  29. 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


The  same  with  the  summit  truncated,  or 
cutoff 


Fig.  30. 


The  same  with  all  the  corners,  or  solid  an- 
gles  truncated. 


Fig.  31. 


The  same  with  the  edges  truncated. 


Fig.  32. 


The  same  with  the  edges  bevelled. 


Fig.  33. 


The  Cube  has  six  equal,  square  faces, 
eight  corners,  or  solid  angles,  and  twelve 

iirl  rr*iOi 


edges. 


Fig.  34. 


The  Regular  Square  Table.  Tt  has  the 
same  number  of  solid  angles  and  edges  with 
the  cube.  If  the  cube  be  divided  in  the  mid- 
dle, two  square  tables  would  be  formed. 


MINERALOGY. 


33 


Pig.  33. 


A  Regular  Quadrangular  Prism.  This  has  the 
same  number  of  faces,  angles,  and  corners  with  the 
cube.  If  two,  or  three  cubes,  be  laid  one  on  the 
other,  this  figure  would  be  formed. 


Fig.  36. 


The  Cube>  with  the  comers  truncated. 


Fig.  38. 


The  same,  more  deeply  truncated. 


The  same,  with  the  edges  truncated. 


Fig.  39. 


Fiff.  40. 


The  same,  with  the  corners  and  edges  truncated. 


The  Cube,  with  the  edges  bevelled,  forming 
two  planes  and  three  edges,  instead  of  one  edge. 


34 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Pi>.  41. 


Fig.  43. 


\                / 

/ 

\ 

Fig.  44. 


Fijr.  45. 


The  Regular  Octahedron.  This  figure  is 
contained  under  eight  triangular  planes,  or  faces, 
six  solid  angles,  and  twelve  edges. 


The  Octahedron,  with  a  short  prism  inter- 
posed between  the  pyramids. 


The   Elongated    Octahedron,    with  the 
summits  truncated. 


The  Rhomb.  This  figure  differs  from  the 
cube,  in  having  its  contiguous  faces  inclined 
to  each  other  under  various  angles,  instead  of 
being  at  right  angles. 


A  figure  bounded  by  twenty-four  sites.  The 
garnet  sometimes  is  found  under  this  form. 


The  Dodecahedron,  with  the  triangular  faces. 


MINERALOGY. 


The  same,  with  a  short  prism  interrjosed,  on 
which  the  two  pyramids  stand. 


Fig.  48. 

Here  is  (1)  the  Hex- 
ahedral,  or  Six-sided 
Prism,  terminated  by  a 
6-sided  pyramid ;  (2)  A 
Pyramid;(3)An  Irreg- 
ular Pyramid,  standing 
on  a  short  prism;  (4) 
the  same,  but  still  more 
irregular.  Crystals  of  quartz  are  found  under  all  these  forms. 


A  Made,  or  Hemitrope  crystal,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  halves,  one  of  which  is  inverted. 


Two  crystals  crossing  each  other.     Staurotide 
occurs  in  this  form. 


By  obtaining,  and  examining  closely,  the  solids  represented 
by  the  above  cuts,  the  student  will  not  only  gain  a  general 
knowledge  of  crystalline  lorms,  but  will  also  understand  the 
riofht  application  of  the  terms  by  which  they  are  designated. 
Thus,  the  difference  between  the  Tetrahedron,  and  the  Tetra- 
herlral,  or  Four-sided  Prism,  is  obvious.  The  Tetrahedron 
has  four  sides  only,  while  the  Tetrahedral  Prism  has  four 
sides,  more  or  less  extended,  surrounding  its  axes,  besides  its 
terminations,  which  may  consist  of  from  one  to  four,  or  more 
faces  at  earh  extremity.  This  figure  is  also  called  the  Quad- 
rangular Prism. 


36  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  Hexahedron,  or  Cube,  has  six  equal  faces,  while  the 
'Hexakedral,  or  Six-sided  Prism,  has  six  sides  surrounding  its 
axes,  besides  its  terminations. 

The  Octahedron  is  bounded  by  eight  faces,  while  the  Octa- 
hedral Prism  has  eight  contiguous  planes,  besides  its  termi- 
nations. 

MECHANICAL  DIVISION   OF  CRYSTALS. 

We  have  stated  that  the  primitive  forms  of  crystals  are 
often  concealed  within  their  actual,  or  external  forms.  This 
fact  could  only  have  been  ascertained  by  the  mechanical  di- 
vision, or  cleavage  of  the  crystals,  which  consists  in  the  re- 
moval of  their  external  layers,  or  covering.  This  operation 
is  founded  on  the  fact  that  crystals  are  made  up  of  thin  slices, 
or  layers,  placed  one  upon  the  other,  and  that  these  are  sepa- 
rable, and  may  be  removed  by  mechanical  means.  These 
layers  are  nicely  fitted  to -each  other,  though  in  many  crystals 
the  seams,  or  natural  joints  where  they  meet,  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  eye  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  ga- 
lena, or  sulphuret  of  lead,  in  fluor  spar,  in  common  felspar, 
and  in  the  rhombic  carbonate  of  lime.  In  other  minerals,  as 
in  quartz  and  some  crystals  of  iron  ore,  they  are  not  so  appa- 
rent, though  by  close  examination  their  direction  may  be  as 
certained  in  most  minerals.  It  is  between  these  natural 
joints  that  cleavage  is  to  be  attempted.  The  instruments  for 
this  purpose  are  various,  and  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
mineral  to  be  divided.  The  sulphuret  of  lead  and  zinc,  in 
which  these  joints  are  quite  apparent,  require  only  a  sharp 
knife  to  be  introduced  between  them,  the  mineral  being  held 
with  the  hand  on  a  table.  Oxide  of  zinc  is  best  cleaved  with 
pincers,  having  sharp  edges,  while  many  varieties  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  yield  to  a  slight  blow  with  the  knife.  Some 
minerals  require  to  be  heated,  and  in  that  state  to  be  plunged 
into  cold  water,  by  which  fissures  will  be  produced  in  the 
direction  of  their  natural  joints,  alter  which  cleavage  can  be 
effected . 

The  faces  produced  by  cleavage  are  always  smooth  and 
shining,  and  are  thus  easily  distinguished  from  the  surfaces 
made  by  fracture,  \vhich  never  present  this  appearance. 


What  is  meant  by  the  mechanical  division  of  crystals  ? — What  crystals 
are  mentioned  as  illustrations  of  this  subject  ? — On  what  part  of  the  crys- 
tal is  mechanical  division  to  be  attempted? — What  inetiumenta  are  em- 
ployed in  the  mechanical  division  of  crystal?  ?— How  are  the  faces  pro- 
duced by  cleavage  distinguished  from  those  prodmvd  by  iracture? 


MINERALOGY.  37 

We  have  already  stated  that  in  some  instances  the  primary 
and  secondary  forms  are  the  same.  In  such  cases  cleavage 
only  diminishes  the  size  of  the  crystal,  but  does  not  in  the 
least  change  its  form.  Crystals  of  rhombic  carbonate  of  lime 
are  an  example.  Cleavage  can  only  be  effected  in  this,  in  the 
direction  parallel  to  all  its  plane  surfaces,  and  hence,  however 
Nfar  the  process  is  carried,  the  shape  of  the  specimen  will  still 
remain  a  rhomboid  as  at  first.  In  all  cases  where  the  pri- 
mary and  secondary  forms  are  the  same,  the  same  effect  only 
wilfbe  produced  by  cleavage.  In  those  instances  where  the 
primary  and  secondary  forms  are  different,  an  entire  change 
in  the  figure  of  the  crystal  is  often  produced  by  cleavage.  In 
some  minerals  these  two  forms  would  seem  to  have  no  con- 
nexion with  each  other.  Thus  the  secondary  form  of  fluor 
spar  is  most  commonly  the  cube,  while  its  primary  is  the  oc- 
tobedron. 

In  the  process  of  cleavage,  the  primitive  form  is  known  to 
be  obtained,  when  it  is  found  that  the  layers  continue  to  sepa- 
rate in  directions  parallel  to  all  its  sides,  whatever  its  figure 
may  be.  It  will  be  obvious  that  when  this  is  found  to  be  the 
case,  the  figure  of  the  crystal  will  not  be  changed,  but  only 
its  size  reduced  by  continuing  the  cleavage. 
Fig.  51. 

To  make  the  nature  of  mechanical  di- 
vision more  obvious,  let  fig.  51  repre- 
sent a  crystal  of  fluor  spar.  The  form 
is  that  of  a  cube,  and  cleavage  can  be 
effected  only  across  its  corners.  The 
cube,  it  will  be  remembered,  has  six 
equal  sides,  and  eight  solid  angles  or 
corners.  If,  therefore,  we  cleave  off 
each  of  these  corners,  we  shall  form  a 
figure  having  fourteen  faces,  viz.  eight  new  triangular  planes 
instead  of  the  corners,  and  a  part  of  the  six  original  faces  of 
the  cube.  Now  it.  is  obvious  by  the  figure,  that  if  the  process 
be  continued,  and  layer  after  layer  be  removed  from  each  of 
the  new  faces,  making  the  opposite  planes  parallel  with  each 
other,  that  the  cube  will  finally  disappear,  and  that  we  shall 

When  does  cleavage  produce  a  change  of  form  in  the  crystal,  and  when 
not? — In  the  process  of  cleavage,  when  is  the  primitive  form  known  to  be 
obtained?— Explain  fig.  51,  and  show  in  what  manner  cleavage  is  to  be 
effected  on  a  crystal  of  fluor. 
4 


38 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


-  52-  obtain  a  solid  having  eight  plane  faces 

instead  of  eight  comers,  thus  forming 
the  primitive  octohedron  which  is  seen 
in  the  middle  of  fig.  52. 

This  process  may  readily  be  illustra- 
ted by  a  piece  of  cork,  or  potato,  and  a 
sharp  knife. 

Having  obtained  the  octohedron,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  cleavage  of  the 
mineral  may  still  be  continued,  but  that 
the  form  of  the  crystal  will  not  thereby  be  changed ;  hence 
this  is  the  primitive  form  of  fluor  spar. 

Suppose  now  that  the  cube  is 
the  primitive  form,  and  that  the 
octohedron  is  one  of  its  secondary 
modifications.  The  octohedron 
has  eight  triangular  faces,  and  six 
solid  angles,  or  corners.  If,  there- 
fore, we  cleave  away  or  truncate 
each  of  these  angles,  we  shall  at 
first  obtain  a  figure  of  fourteen 
faces,  as  in  the  former  instance. 
But  the  new  faces  will  be  squares 
instead  of  triangles  as  before;  (see 
fig.  53,  where  the  dotted  lines  show  the  new  faces  formed  by 
cleavage.)  Now  as  the  octohedron  has  six  corners,  and  the 
cube  six  sides,  if  we  continue  the  cleavage  so  as  to  form  par- 
allel faces,  we  shall  finally  obtain  a  figure  having  six  equal 
sides,  and  eight  solid  angles,  or  a  cube. 

Fig.  54.  Fig.  54  shows  that  if  the  truncation 

be  pursued  on  each  of  the  six  corners 
of  the  octohedron,  the  cube  contained 
within  the  outline  of  that  figure  will  be 
formed. 

This  experiment  may  be  made  on 
an  octohedral  crystal  of  sulphuret  of 
lead,  and  a  brilliant  cube  obtained, 
whose  form  will  not  be  changed  by  fur- 
ther cleavage.  This,  therefore,  is  the 
primitive  form  of  sulphuret  of  lead.  These  examples  are  suf- 


What  is  intended  by  fig.  52? — Explain  what  is  said  concerning  fig.  53— 
How  many  faces  and  corners  has  the  octahedron  1— Show  how  the  octo- 
hedron will  be  converted  into  the  cube  by  cleavage — On  what  substance 
may  this  experiment  be  made  ? 


MINERALOGY. 


39 


fie  lent  to  give  the  beginner  an  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  me- 
chanical division,  or  cleavage  of  minerals. 

ANGLES  OF  CRYSTALS. 

We  have  stated  that  the  constancy  of  the  angles  under 
which  crystalline  bodies  appear,  is  often  the  surest  means  of 
distinguishing  them. 

Notwithstanding  the  modifications  of  form  which  the  crys- 
tals of  many  substances  present,  still  it  is  found  that  each  va- 
riety of  the  same  substance  afford  an  invariable  quantity  in 
their  angular  admeasurements.  Thus  if  we  take  a  six-sided 
crystal  of  quartz,  and  ascertain  the  quantity  of  the  angle  which 
one  of  the  lateral  planes  makes  with  its  corresponding  termi- 
nal plane,  we  shall  have  the  angle  which  all  other  crystals  of 
quartz  give  at  the  junction  of  their  lateral  and  terminal  planes. 
And  so  if  we  measure  the  angle  produced  by  the  meeting  of 
any  two  opposite  faces  of  a  pyramid  of  quartz,  the  same  angle 
will  apply  to  the  corresponding  part  of  any  other  crystal  of 
the  same  substance. 

Fig.  55.  Thus,  in  the  crystal  of  quartz,  fig.  55,  the  angle 
which  the  inclination  of  any  face  of  the  pyramid 
makes  with  its  corresponding  lateral  plane,  that  is,  at 
a,  or  a,  is  equal  to  141°  40',  and  this  angle  will  be 
found  the  same  on  the  corresponding  part  of  any 
other  crystal  of  the  same  substance,  from  whatever 
part  of  the  world  it  may  come.  In  the  same  crys- 
tal, the  inclination  of  the  two  opposite  faces  of  the  py- 
ramid, meeting  at  o,  will  be  found  under  an  angle  of 
75°  22',  and  this  mutual  inclination  will  be  found 
the  same  in  any  two  opposite  terminal  planes  of  any 
other  crystal  of  quartz. 

Nor  does  it  make  any  difference  in  this  respect, 
ig.  56.  whet}ler  the   sides  of  the  crystal  are  symmetrically 
formed,  or  whether  one  side  and  a  terminal  plane  are 
&  enlarged  at  the  expense  of  the  others  or  not.     Thus, 
in  fig.  56,  although  one  of  the  lateral  and  terminal 
planes  is  extended,  while  the  others  have  suffered  a 
corresponding  diminution,  still  the  angles  at  a,  and  a, 
as  well  as  that  at  o,  have  the  same  quantities  as  those 
on  the  similar  parts  of  fig.  55. 

This  system  <of  order  and  regularity,  in  respect  to 
angular  admeasurements,  prevails  in  all  perfectly 
crystallized  bodies  of  every  kind. 

[For  questions,  vide  paj*t  40.  ^ 


V 

A 


40 


INTRODUCTION  TO 
GONIOMETER. 


The  goniometer,  or  angle  measurer,  is  an  instrument  by 
which  the  angles  of  crystals  are  determined.  The  instrument 
here  figured  is  called  the  common  goniometer,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  reflective  goniometer,  an  instrument  not 
so  easily  employed,  though  more  accurate  in  skilful  hands. 


The  common  goniometer  consists  of  a  brass  semicircle,  M, 
N,  graduated  into  ISOdegrees.  B,  and  D,  are  two  steel  arms 
connected  by  a  thumb-screw,  so  that  they  can  be  screwed 
tighter  together  when  occasion  requires.  This  screw  enters 
a  small  steel  nut  on  the  under  side  of  the  bar,  connecting  the 
two  ends  of  the  semicircle,  and  is  the  pivot  on  which  the  arms 
turn.  In  each  arm  there  is  an  oblong  aperture  through  which 
the  pivot  passes,  §p  that  they  may  be  drawn  back,  the  effect 
of  which  is  to  move  the  centre  of  motion  nearer  the  pointed 


What  is  said  concerning  the  invariable  quantity  which  the  angles  of 
crystals  present  ? — Explain  fig.  55,  and  point  out  which  angles  are  referred 
to  in  the  texi — When  one  face  of  a  crystal  is  larger  than  another,  does 
this  make  any  difference  with  respect  to  the  angles  ? — Compare  figures  55 
and  56,  and  show  the  correspondence  of  their  angular  quantities. 

What  is  the  goniometer  ?— Of  what  does  this  instrument  consist  1 


MINERALOGY.  41 

ends  of  the  arms.     C,  is  a  short  pin  passing  through  an  aper- 
ture in  the  under  arm  so  as  to  keep  it  in  its  place. 

The  most  convenient  mode  of  using  this  instrument  is  to 
take  off  the  arms,  and  for  a  small  crystal,  to  draw  them  back 
on  the  pivot,  so  as  to  bring  the  centre  of  motion  near  the 
pointed  end,  and  for  large  ones,  let  them  remain  as  they  now 
are.  Then  tighten  the  thumb-screw,  so  that  the  arms  need 
not  move  and  lose  the  true  angle.  Having  applied  them 
carefully  to  the  crystal,  put  the  under  arm  in  its  place,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  and  the  right  side  of  the  other  arm  will  cut  the 
degree  on  the  graduated  scale. 

DOUBLE  REFRACTION. 

It  is  well  known  that  when  a  ray  of  light  passes  obliquely 
from  one  medium  to  another  of  a  different  density,  it  is  re- 
fracted, or  bent  out  of  its  original  direction.  Experiment 
shows  that  when  the  ray  passes  from  a  rarer,  into  a  denser 
medium,  it  is  always  refracted  towards  a  perpendicular  line 
passiu^  through  that  medium ;  and  also  that  when  it  passes 
from  a° denser  into  a  rarer  medium,  it  is  refracted  in  a  contra- 
ry diieUion,  or  from  such  a  perpendicular.  The  air,  water, 
glass,  or  any  other  transparent  substance  employed  for  such 
experiments,  is  called  a  medium.  Agreeably  to  this  law,  when 
ii^ht  passes  obliquely  from  the  sun  into  water,  the  rays  are 
refracted  towards  a  perpendicular  line,  raised  from  the  point 
where  the  ray  meets  the  medium. 

Fig.  53.  ^  Thus,  let  the  medium,  b,  fig.  58,  be 

glass,  and  the  medium,  c,  be  water.  Then 
the  ray  a,  as  it  falls  from  the  air  upon  the 
medium  6,  will  be  refracted  towards  the 
perpendicular  line  e,  d;  but  when  it 
reaches  the  rarer  medium,  water,  whose 
refractive  power  is  less  than  that  of  glass, 
d  it  is  not  bent  towards  the  perpendicular 

is  before,  but  is  thiown  from  it,  and  approaches  the  original 
direction  of  the  ray  a,  g,  as  it  passed  through  the  air. 

This  explains  the  reason  why  objects  are  multiplied  when 
seen  through  the  inclined  contiguous  surfaces  of  any  trans- 
parent medium.  Trie  light  coining  from  the  object  being  re- 
fracted by  the  oblique  surface,  passes  to  the  eye  in  a  different 


Explain  the  method  of  using  this  instrument — What  is  meant  by  refrac- 
tion?— When  a  ray  of  light  p,*Ws  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser  medium,  how 
is  it  refracted  ? — What  is  a  medium  ? — Which  way  is  a  ray  of  light  refract- 
ed when  it  passes  into  water?-  -Explain  fisr.  53,  and  show  how  the  ray  is 
affected  in  its  passage  through  water  and  glass. 


42 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


p.    5g 


direction  from  that  of  the  real  object,  and  hence  as  many  ima- 
ges are  seen  as  there  are  oblique  planes. 

This  optical  law  may  be  well  illustrated  by  any 
perfectly  formed  crystal  of  quartz,  fig.  59.  The 
black  point  seen  through  the  upper  lateral  plane, 
appears  in  the  direction  in  which  it  really  is,  be- 
cause there,  the  two  opposite  faces,  being  parallel, 
the  light  is  not  refracted.  But  though  there  is 
really  but  one  point,  or  object,  there  seems  to  .the 
eye  to  be  four,  because  the  obliquity  of  the  other 
surfaces  bends  the  rays  of  light,  so  as  to  make  the  images  of 
the  object  co*ne  to  the  eye  from  different  directions.  The  same 
effect  is  produced  by  glass  or  other  transparent  substances 
cut  into  the  same  form. 

In  all  these  cases,  whether  the  object  is  seen  double,  or 
treble,  the  phenomena  are  those  of  simple,  or  single  refraction. 
because  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  light  are  changed  only  by 
the  direction  in  which  they  happen  to  strike  the  transparent 
surfaces. 

In  the  phenomena  of  double  refraction,  the  effect  depends 
on  an  entirely  different  vcause  from  that  here  explained,  since 
the  image  of  a  single  object  is  doubled  when  seen  through  two 
parallel  surfaces. 

The  phenomenon  of  double  refraction  was  first  discovered 
by  means  of  a  transparent  piece  of  rhombic  carbonate  of  lime, 
called  Iceland  spar. 

To  observe  it,  a  transparent  crystal  with  polished  surfaces 
must  be  selected.  If  the  surfaces  are  not  naturally  smooth, 
they  may  readily  be  made  so  by  rubbing  on  a  plane  whetstone, 
arid  afterwards  polishing  on  a  razor  strap  with  a  little  whiting. 
Having  prepared  the  crystal,  draw  a  line  with  ink  on  paper, 
and  look  at  it  through  any  of  its  parallel  faces.  If  the  crystal 
be  turned  so  that  its  longer  diagonal,  or  acute  angles,  corres- 
pond  with  the  line*  the  greatest  refraction 
will  be  produced,  and  the  two  images  will 
be  most  distant  from  each  other.  Fig.  60 
represents  a  rhombic  crystal  placed  over  a 
black  line,  in  the  direction  to  show  this  ef- 
fect. 


Explain  fig.  59,  and  show  the  reason  why  four  images  are  seen,  when 
there  is  onlv  one  object — Does  fig.  59  illustrate  single  or  double  refrac- 
tion?— What  is  the  difference  between  single  and  double  refraction  ? — By 
what  means  was  double  refraction  discovered  1 — How  may  this  phenome- 
non be  observed? — In  what  oosition  of  the  crystal  does  the  greatest  re- 
fraction take  place  ? 


.  60. 


MINERALOGY. 


43 


Fig.  61.  If  now  the  crystal  be  gradually  turned,  or 

made  to  revolve,  either  to  the  right  or  left, 
the  refracted  lines  will  be  seen  gradually  to 
approach  each  other,  as  represented  by  fig. 
61  ;  and  if  the  revolution  be  continued  until 
the  shorter  diagonal,  or  obtuse  angles  of  the 
crystal  correspond  with  the  line,  the  double 
refraction  will  entirely  disappear,  and  only  one 
image  will  be  seen,  as  in  fig.  62.  If  a  second 
crystal  of  spar  be  laid  on  the  first,  so  that  their 
positions  shall  correspond  with  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  refraction,  the  effect  will  be  increased, 
or  doubled,  if  the  crystals  are  of  the  same  thick- 
ness. And  if  now  the  upper  crystal  be  made 
to  revolve  on  the  lower  one,  so  as  to  bring  the 
obtuse  angles  of  the  first  to  coincide  with  the  acute  angles  of 
the  other,  three  lines  will  be  observed  instead  of  two,  as  be- 
fore. If  the  revolution  be  continued  so  as  completely  to  re- 
verse the  angles,  and  the  oblique  planes  of  the  two  crystals, 
the  doubly  refractive  effect  will  cease  entirely,  and  only  a  sin- 
gle image  will  be  seen.  The  property  of  double  refraction 
is  possessed  by  a  considerable  number  of  substances.  These 
are  chiefly  native,  and  artificial  crystals.  In  some  of  these, 
this  property  cannot  be  observed,  without  much  practical  skill, 
and  in  others  the  crystals  require  to  be  cut  and  polished  in  a 
peculiar  manner  before  it  can  be  observed. 

In  respect  to  the  cause  of  double  refraction,  it  is  perhaps 
only  necessary  to  say  here,  that  it  has  excited  the  attention  of 

Shilosophers  ever  since  its  discovery,  and  that  it  still  remains 
oubtfud. 

COLOURS  OF  MINERALS. 

This  property  is  exceedingly  various,  and  though  one  of  the 
most  obvious  and  striking  among  the  external  characters  of 
minerals,  is  not  always  the  most  sure-,  means  of  distinction. 
In  some  minerals  the  colour  is  accidental,  and  depends  upon 
the  presence  of  certain  metallic  oxides.  Thus  quartz  maybe 
yellow,  brown,  red,  purple,  white,  or  colourless,  and  transpa- 
rent, depending  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  metallic 


In  what  position  is  the  refraction  least 7— What  is  the  effect,  when  a 
second  crystal  is  laid  on  the  first  ?— What  position  of  the  two  crystals  pro- 
duces three  lines? — Do  other  substances  besides  Iceland  spar  occasion 
the  same  phenomena? — What  is  said  concerning  the  cause  of  double  re- 
fraction ? — How  far  is  colour  to  be  depended  on  as  a  means  of  distinguish- 
ing minerals  ? 


44  INTRODUCTION  TO 

oxides.  The  diamond  also  is  found  either  yellowish  blue, 
rose  red,  nearly  black,  or  perfectly  transparent  and  without  a 
tinge  of  colour.  In  these  and  many  other  instances,  no  reli- 
ance, as  a  means  of  distinction,  can  be  placed  on  colour  alone. 
Tins  uncertainty,  however,  applies  chiefly  to  the  earthy  and 
alkaline  minerals,  there  being  others  in  which  the  colour,  aris- 
ing from  some  essential  part  of  the  composition,  is  invariable, 
and  therefore  a  sure  characteristic.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  all  the  native  metals,  and  with  most  of  the  metallic 
ores.  Thus  the  ores  of  lead,  arsenic,  mercury,  and  many 
others,  may  be  distinguished  merely  by  their  colours. 

Mineralogists  have  assumed  eight  colours  as  primary,  or 
fundamental,  and  then  described  the  shades  arising  from  these. 
But  in  addition  to  colour  merely,  there  is  an  important  distinc- 
tion, arising  from  the  kind  of  surface  from  which  the  colour 
is  reflected.  The  shade  of  colour  arising  from  a  metallic  sur- 
face, differs  materially  from  the  same  shade  when  reflected 
from  any  other  substance.  Hence  colours  have  been  divided 
into  metallic  and  non-metallic. 

Metallic  colours.  These  are  copper  red,  the  colour  of  metal- 
lic copper.  Bronze  yellow,  a  little  darker  than  brass.  Brass 
yellow,  the  colour  of  brass.  Gold  yellow,  the  colour  of  pure 
gold.  Silver  white,  the  colour  of  pure  silver.  Tin  white,  the 
colour  of  pure  tin.  Lead  gray,  the  colour  of  newly  cut  lead. 
Steel  gray,  the  colour  of  broken  steel.  Iron  black,  the  colour 
of  black  oxide  of  iron. 

Non-metallic  colours.  The  eight  primary,  or  fundamental 
non-metallic  colours  are,  white,  gray,  black,  blue,  green,  yel- 
low, red,  and  brown. 

The  shades  of  each  of  these  colours  are  described  by  some 
mineralogists  with  great  minuteness,  as  snow  white,  greenish 
white,  milk  white,  velvet  black,  bluish  black,  &c.  but  this  ap- 
pears to  be  hardly  necessary  in  an  epitome  like  the  present. 

Play  of  colours.  A  few  minerals  present  curious  and  inte- 
resting phenomena  with  respect  to  the  colour  of  the  light  which 
they  reflect.  These  peculiarities  seem  to  arise  from  different 
causes,  probably  depending  on  the  structure  of  the  mineral. 
The  great  beauty  and  value  of  the  precious  opal,  arises  from 
this  peculiarity.  As  its  position  is  varied  with  respect  to  the 
light,  it  transmits  from  its  interior  most  of  the  colours  of  the 

Under  what  circumstances  is  colour  to  be  depended  on? — In  what 
minerals  are  the  colours  invariable  and  characteristic  ? — How  do  mine- 
ralogists divide  colours? — What  are  the  metallic  colours? — What  are 
the  non-metallic  colours? — What  is  observed  concerning  the  play  of 
colours  ? 


MINERALOGY.  45 

rainbow,  either  in  succession,  or  sometimes  several  at  the  same 
instant.  Dr.  Brewster,  after  numerous  experiments,  con- 
cludes, that  this  play  of  light  from  the  opal  is  caused  by  its 
fissile  structure,  and  not  by  accidental  fractures,  as  others  had 
supposed. 

The  labradorile  or  opalescent  felspar  also  presents  a  remark- 
able play  of  colours,  especially  when  cut  into  a  convex  ellipti- 
cal shape,  and  polished.  The  colours  appear  to  come  from 
immediately  under  the  surface,  and  not  from  the  interior  of 
the  stone  as  in  the  opal. 

Iridescence.  This  property  differs  entirely  from  those  de- 
scribed above.  It  is  sometimes  evidently  caused  by  acciden- 
tal fissures  in  the  interior  of  the  stone,  and  consists  in  the  re- 
llection  of  prismatic  rays  from  within  its  surface.  Two 
smooth  pieces  of  glass,  pressed  together  with  the  fingers,  will 
produce  similar  phenomena.  Rock  crystal,  or  pieces  of  frac- 
tured glass,  sometimes  display  these  colours  in  great  beauty. 

Tarnish.  This  is  a  change  of  colour  merely  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  mineral,  arising  from  the  different  degrees  of 
oxidation  it  has  undergone,  and  in  consequence  of  which  vari- 
ous tints,  as  green,  blue,  yellow,  &c.  are  reflected.  Such  ef- 
fects are  chiefly  confined  to  the  metallic  ores,  and  such  sub- 
stances as  contain  a  portion  of  metal  in  their  compositions,  or 
investing  their  surfaces.  Specular  oxide  of  iron,  anthracite 
coal,  and  copper  pyrites,  often  present  fine  examples  of  irised 
surfaces. 

LUSTRE. 

The  lustre  of  a  mineral  depends  on  the  quantity  of  light 
which  is  reflected  from  its  surface.  This  is  often  an  important 
character  in  distinguishing  specimens,  because  it  is  uniform  in 
the  same  species,  and  not,  like  colour,  liable  to  variations. 

The  kinds  of  lustre  are  the  metallic,  adamantine,  resinous, 
vitreous,  and  pearly. 

The  metallic  lustre  is  exemplified  in  the  peculiar  appearance 
of  all  the  metals  and  many  of  their  ores,  when  compared  with 
other  bodies. 

The  adamantine  lustre  is  not  easily  described,  but  is  readily 
distinguished  in  the  diamond,  corundum,  and  carbonate  of  lead. 


What  is  the  most  probable  cause  of  the  play  of  colours  in  the  opal? — 
What  is  the  cause  of  iridescence? — How  is  this  illustrated  with  two  pieces 
of  glass? — What  is  meant  by  tarnish? — What  minerals  are  liable  to  this 
change? — On  what  does  the  lustre  of  a  mineral  depend  ? — What  are  the 
l"nds  of  lustre  mentioned? — What  minerals  show  the  adamantine  lustre. 


46  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  resinous  lustre  is  that  of  broken  resin.  Examples  of 
this  lustre  occur  in  pitchstone,  and  vesuvian. 

The  vitreous  lustre  is  that  of  fractured  glass.  Quartz,  topaz, 
ind  beryl,  are  examples. 

The  pearly  lustre  is  that  exhibited  by  the  mother  of  pearl. 
Some  minerals  show  this  lustre  only  when  they  reflect  the  light 
in  a  certain  direction. 

HARDNESS. 

This  is  a  character  of  considerable  importance,  since  it  is 
generally  uniform  in  the  same  variety.  It  is  that  property  by 
which  substances  resist  impressions,  and  is  ascertained  by 
comparing  one  mineral  with  another.  Minerals  are  com- 
pared in  this  respect  by  scratching  one  with  another,  or  by 
making  a  few  well-known  species  the  standards  of  compari- 
son. Q,uartz  is  one  of  these  standards.  Thus  if  any  mineral 
is  found  to  scratch  quartz,  it  is  considered  as  being  harder 
than  that  substance,  as  topaz,  sapphire,  &c.  Glass  has  also 
been  made  a  standard  for  the  same  purpose.  All  the  varieties 
of  quartz  scratch  glass,  while  all  the  carbonaceous  minerals 
are  softer  than  glass,  and  may  be  generally  scratched  by  the 
point  of  a  knife.  This  is  often  a  highly  convenient  mode 
of  distinguishing  the  silicious  from  the  limestone  species. 
Minerals  of  a  lower  degree  of  hardness  than  such  as  yield  to 
the  knife,  are  such  as  yield  to  the  nail.  For  this  purpose  the 
thumb  nail  is  used.  Gypsum,  talc,  and  the  clays  are  exam- 
ples. 

ELECTRICITY. 

Some  minerals  become  electric  by  friction,  others,  by  pres- 
sure, and  others  by  heat. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  electricity,  called  positive  and  neg- 
ative by  some,  and  by  others  vitreous  and  resinous.  When 
two  substances,  possessing  the  same  kind  of  electricity,  are 
brought  together,  they  mutually  repel  each  other.  If  one  is 
positive  and  the  other  negative,  they  attract  each  other. 

Quartz,  mica,  sapphire,  barytes,  and  many  other  minerals, 
acquire  electricity  when  rubbed  with  the  dry  hand,  or  with  a 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the  resinous  lustre?— What  is  the  best  exam- 
ple of  the  vitreous  lustre?— What  is  the  pearly  lustre?— What  is  hardness  ? 
— How  is  the  hardness  of  minerals  ascertained? — What  substances  are  ta- 
ken as  the  standards  of  hardness  ? — How  is  it  ascertained  that  one  mineral 
is  harder  than  another? — What  are  the  two  kinds  of  electricity  called? 
— When  do  two  electrical  substances  repel  each  other  ? — When  do  the"  9*- 
tract  each  other?— By  what  different  processes  do  minerals  become  electr**  ' 


MINERALOGY. 


47 


Fig.  63. 


piece  of  silk,  woollen  cloth,  or  fur.  These  are  said  to  be- 
come electric  by  friction.  Those  which  become  electric  by 
heat  are  called  pyro-electric.  These  are  chiefly  crystals,  and 
it  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  they  acquire  positive  electri- 
city at  one  end,  and  negative  at  the  other.  Such  crystals 
often  terminate  in  a  different  number  of  faces  at  each  extremi- 
ty, and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  end  having  the  greatest 
number  of  faces  is  always  positive.  Perfect  crystals  of  tour- 
maline, or  schorl,  display  this  property  in  the  most  striking 
mariner. 

The  electricity  of  minerals  is  shown 
by  a  little  instrument  called  an  electrome- 
ter, fig.  63.  It  consists  of  a  glass  stem, 

a,  which  is  fixed  in  a  small  wooden  base, 

b,  and  to  the  upper  end,  c,  there  is  sus- 
pended a  small  piece  of  gilt  paper  by  a 
silk  thread.     To  try  the  electricity  of  a 
crystal  of  tourmaline,  hold  the  mineral 
in  a  pair  of  forceps  with  a  glass  handle, 
for  a  minute,  over  a  lamp  to  heat  it,  and 
then  present  it  towards  the  gilt  paper. 
The  paper  will  be  attracted  and  move 
forward  to  meet  the  crystal ;    then  on 
presenting  the  other  end  of  the  crystal, 
the    paper  will  be  repelled,  and  retire 

______ from  it,  showing  that  one  end  is  positive 

and  the  other  negative.  The  forceps  with  the  glass  handle 
are  necessary  in  these  experiments,  because  the  hand  would 
conduct  away  the  electricity  if  it  touched  the  mineral,  whereas 
the  glass  is  a  non-conductor  of  the  electrical  fluid. 

Quartz,  and  other  minerals  which  become  electric  by  fric- 
tion, must  be  rubbed  on  a  piece  of  fur,  or  other  soft  non-con- 
ducting substance,  and  then  presented  to  the  gilt  paper. 

In  most  instances,  polished  stones  acquire  positive  electricity 
by  friction,  while  if  the  same  stones  have  their  polish  destroyed, 
they  acquire  negative  electricity,  by  the  same  treatment.  The 
diamond,  however,  is  an  exception  to  this,  being  always  posi- 
tive, whether  rough  or  smooth. 


What  is  said  of  the  different  electricities  acquired  by  the  extremities  of 
some  crystals  1 — Describe  the  electrometer,  fig.  63,  and  the  mode  of  using 
it — Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  forceps  with  glass  handles  in  these  experi- 
ments?— Which  electricity  do  polished  stones  acquire  by  friction1? 


43  INTRODUCTION  TO 

PHOSPHORESCENCE. 

A  body  is  said  to  phosphoresce  when  it  gives  light  without 
heat,  or  when  it  shines  by  being  heated  below  redness. 

This  property  is  not  constant,  even  in  the  same  species 
Thus  some  varieties  of  fluate  of  lime  become  beautifully  phos- 
phorescent, when  thrown  on  an  iron  shovel  heated  below  red- 
ness, while  other  varieties,  when  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
yield  no  perceptible  light. 

Some  minerals  exhibit  this  property  when  scratched,  or 
rubbed  against  each  other,  and  a  few,  even  when  brushed  with 
a  feather.  Two  pieces  of  quartz,  when  struck  against  each 
other  in  the  dark,  will  emit  a  faint  flash  of  light.  And  that 
variety  of  carbonate  of  lime  called  dolomite,  when  scratched 
with  the  point  of  a  knife,  in  the  dark,  emits  a  streak  of  light. 
Blende,  or  sulphuret  of  zinc,  exhibits  the  same  property.  The 
best  way  to  show  the  phosphorescence  of  fluor,  colophonite, 
argentine,  and  other  minerals  requiring  heat,  is  to  make  a 
shovel  red  hot,  and  having  immediately  carried  it  into  the  dark, 
sprinkle  on  the  mineral  in  the  state  of  coarse  powder.  As  the 
iron  cools  and  turns  black,  the  phosphorescent  light  will  be 
seen. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  body  is  its  weight  when  compared 
with  the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  its  own  bulk. 
Thus  when  we  say  that  gold  has  a  specific  gravity  of  19,  we 
mean  that  gold  is  19  times  as  heavy  as  a  quantity  of  water 
equal  to  its  own  bulk.  When  a  mineral  is  suspended  in  watei 
and  weighed,  it  is  lighter  than  when  weighed  in  air,  by  the 
weight  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the  bulk  of  the  mineral 
so  suspended.  The  reason  of  this  is  obvious,  for  if  the  sub- 
stance was  not,  bulk  for  bulk,  heavier  than  water,  it  would 
not  sink  in  it,  but  if  it  sinks,  its  weight  must  be  diminished  by 
exactly  that  of  the  quantity  of  water  it  displaces. 

To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  a  substance,  therefore,  it  must 
first  be  weighed  in  air,  or  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  then 
weighed  in  water,  \vhen  its  specific  gravity  may  be  found  "  by 
dividing  its  weight  in  air  by  its  loss  in  water." 

When  is  a  body  said  to  phosphoresce  1 — By  what  means  are  minerals 
made  to  exhibit  this  property? — What  is  the  method  of  showing  this  pro- 
perty in  minerals  requiring  heat  ?— What  is  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  ?— 
Why  is  the  specific  gravity  of  gold  said  to  be  197— Why  does  a  mineral 
weigh  less  in  water  than  in  air?— What  is  the  rule  for  finding  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  body? 


MINERALOGY.  49 

First  weigh  the  body  in  n 
delicate  pair  of  scales,  and  note 
down  its  weight  in  grains. 
Then  with  a  hair  or  fine 
thread,  suspend  it  from  the 
bottom  of  the  scale-dish  in  a 
vessel  of  water,  as  represented 
by  fig-  64.  As  it  weighs  less 
in  water,  weights  must  be  add- 
el  to  the  side  of  the  scales 
where  the  body  is  suspended, 
until  they  exactly  balance  as  at  first.  Next  note  down  the 
number  of  grains  so  added,  and  they  will  show  the  difference 
between  the  weight  of  the  body  in  air  and  in  water.  Now  it 
is  plain  that  the  greater  the  specific,  gravity  of  the  body  is, 
the  less  comparatively  will  be  this  difference,  because  each 
body  displaces  only  its  own  bulk  of  water,  and  some  bodies  of 
the  same  size  are  many  times  more  heavy  than  others.  Thus 
a  square  inch  of  platina  will  weigh  22  ounces,  while  the  same 
bulk  of  silver  will  weigh  only  11  ounces.  But  the  two  pieces 
of  metal  when  weighed  in  water  will  lose  exactly  the  same 
number  of  grains,  because  they  each  displace  a  square  inch  of 
water,  though  in  comparison  to  their  weights,  the  platina  only 
loses  just  half  as  much  as  the  silver,  because  it  weighs  twice 
as  much.  This  is  the  principle  on  which  the  rule  is  founded, 
for  the  greater  the  loss  is,  the  less  in  proportion  will  be  the 
specific  gravity,  and  so  the  contrary. 

Having  noted  down  the  weight  of  the  mineral  in  air,  and  its 
loss  in  water,  divide  the  number  of  grains  representing  the 
first,  by  that  representing  the  last,  and  the  answer  will  give 
the  specific  gravity.  Thus  suppose  22  ounces  of  platina  to 
lose  1  ounce,  1 1  ounces  of  silver  to  lose  1  ounce,  then  22 
being  divided  by  1,  gives  22,  and  11  being  divided  by  1,  gives 
11.  The  specific,  gravity  of  platina  is  therefore  22,  while 
that  of  silver  is  11. 

CHEMICAL   CHARACTERS. 

We  have  now  enumerated  the  principal  characters  of  min- 
erals which  can  be  ascertained  without  chemical  re-agents. 
These  are  called  their  external,  or  physical  characters. 

Describe  the  method  of  taking  the  specific  gravity  of  a  body  by  the 
scales,  fig.  64 — Why  does  a  square  inch  of  platina  lose  a  less  proportion 
of  its  weight  in  the- water  than  the  silver  ? — What  are  the  external  o;  uhy- 
eical  characters  of  minerals  ? 
5 


50  INTRODUCTION  TO 

There  is  still  another  class  of  characters  which  are  employed 
in  distinguishing  minerals.  These  are  called  chemical  char- 
acters, because  heat  and  acids  are  the  agents  by  which  they 
are  detected.  These  characters  are  developed  by  means  of 
the  mouth  blow  pipe,  and  a  few  simple  experiments  made  by 
means  of  two  or  three  acids. 

The  blow  pipe  is  a  very  simple  instrument,  but  in  skilful 
hands  is  of  great  power,  and  to  the  mineralogist  is  indispensa- 
ble as  well  as  highly  convenient. 

It  most  commonly  consists  of  a  slightly  conical,  or  tapering 
tube  of  brass,  10  or  12  inches  long,  curved  towards  the  small 
end,  and  terminating  in  a  fine  orifice.  A  more  convenient 
form,  however,  is  that  represented  by  fig.  65.  This  consists  of 
Fig.  65.  three  pieces,  as  shown 

by  the  figure,  which 
are  made  to  fit  each 
other  accurately  by 
grinding.  For  the  con- 
venience of  transportation,  the  smaller  long  piece,  when  the 
instrument  is  taken  apart,  fits  into  the  larger,  and  into  this  the 
tip  is  put  as  a  stopper.  Thus  the  instrument  assumes  a  very 
small  compass,  and  may  be  carried  in  the  pocket. 

This  instrument  is  used  by  taking  the  large  end  into  the 
mouth,  placing  the  small  end  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and 
gently  blowing,  so  as  to  direct  the  flame  on  the  mineral, 
which  is  laid  on  a  charcoal  support. 

To  keep  up  a  constant  stream  of  air,  is  the  chief  difficulty 
which  the  beginner  will  experience  in  the  use  of  this  instru- 
ment. To-do  this,  the  inspiration  must  be  made  throughjhe 
nostrils,  while  the  cheeks  are  employed  as  bellows.  This 
art  is  however  soon  learned  by  practice.  A  small  pair  of 
forceps  are  used  to  hold  the  charcoal,  on  which  the  fragment 
of  ore  is  laid.  When  a  very  intense  heat  is  required,  and  the 
fragment  is  so  light  as  to  be  in  danger  of  being  blown  away  by 
the  air,  it  may  be  confined  by  making  a  small  cavity  in  the 
charcoal,  into  which  the  substance  is  put,  and  partly  covered 
by  another  piece  of  charcoal. 

By  means  of  this  simple  instrument,  the  most  violent  heat 
of  a  furnace  may  be  produced,  while  the  experimenter  has 


What  others,  besides  physical  characters,  are  employed  in  distinguish- 
ing minerals? — By  what  means  are  the  chemical  characters  of  minerals 
developed? — Describe  the  blow  pipe  represented  by  fig.  65 — What  is  the 
method  of  using  thjs  blow  pipe? — What  are  the  advantages  of  the  blow- 
pipe in  making  "experiments  on  minerals? 


MINERALOGY.  51 

the  advantage  of  constantly  seeing  how  the  specimen  is  af- 
fected by  the  heat ;  when  it  is  melted  ;  what  odour  arises  from 
it,  &c.  In  refractory  minerals,  the  fragment  should  not  ex- 
ceed the  size  of  a  grain,  or  even  half  a  grain  of  wheat. 

In  respect  to  the  intensity  of  the  heat,  there  is  a  considera- 
ble difference,  depending  on  the  kind  of  fuel  employed  for 
this  little  furnace.  The  flame  from  a  tallow  candle  is  better 
than  that  from  oil,  and  wax  makes  a  stronger  heat  than  tallow. 

In  making  experiments  with  the  blow  pipe  on  the  metallic 
ores,  fluxes  are  used,  and  it  is  often  the  case  that  the  best  test 
of  the  presence  of  certain  metals,  or  metallic  oxides,  is  the 
colour  imparted  to  the  flux.  One  of  the  most  common  and 
convenient  fluxes  for  the  purpose,  is  glass  of  borax,  or  com- 
mon borax,  deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallization  by  heat. 
This  will  not  spread  on  the  charcoal,  nor  sink  into  it,  but  when 
melted  always  takes  the  form  of  a  globule.  The  mineral  and 
the  borax  should  be  in  the  state  of  powder,  and  made  into  the 
form  of  a  little  ball  with  a  drop  of  water.  This  being  laid  on 
the  charcoal,  the  heat  should  be  gradually  applied  until  the 
borax  is  melted,  when  it  may  be  raised  to  the  utmost. 

Action  of  the  acids.  The  acids  are  employed  in  practical 
mineralogy,  merely  as  tests,  to  distinguish  certain  minerals 
from  each  other.  Thus  carbonate  of  lime  may  generally  be 
distinguished  by  its  effervescence,  as  we  have  already  seen. 
Certain  minerals  form  a  jelly  with  acids,  and  are  thus  known 
from  others  which  they  most  resemble,  and  which  have  not 
this  particular  property. 

In  making  experiments  with  the  acids,  one  of  the  most  con- 
venient vessels  is  a  watch  crystal,  in  which  a  little  of  the  acid 
being  placed,  the  mineral  is  dropped  in,  in  the  state  of  powder, 
from  the  point  of  a  knife.  Some  minerals,  on  which  the  acid 
will  produce  little  or  no  observable  effect  in  the  mass,  will 
effervesce  smartly  in  the  state  of  powder.  The  acids  em- 
ployed are  the  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  muriatic. 


CHEMICAL  MINERALOGY. 
In  systematic  books  on  mineralogy,  the  minerals  are  ar- 

What  should  be  the  size  of  the  fragment  experimented  on  ? — Does  it 
make  any  difference  what  kind  of  fuel  is  employed  for  the  blow  pipe  7 — 
What  is  said  of  the  use  of  fluxes? — What  is  the  most  common  and  conve- 
nient flux  1 — How  is  this  flux  to  be  used  ? — For  what  purpose  are  the  acids 
employed  in  mineralogy  ? — What  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  convenient 
vessels  in  making  experiments  on  the  minerals  with  the  acids'? 


52  INTRODUCTION  TO 

ranged  according  to  their  chemical  composition,  and  not  ac- 
cording to  their  colours,  or  external  forms.  When  the  crys- 
talline form  is  precisely  the  same,  it  will  be  obvious,  from  what 
has  already  been  stated,  that  the  mineral  belongs  to  the  same 
individual  species.  But  two  minerals  may  have  nearly  the 
same  form,  and  still  differ  entirely  in  their  compositions. 
Thus  one  variety  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  one  of  carbonate 
of  iron,  so  nearly  resemble  each  other  in  their  crystalline 
forms,  that  the  eye  can  distinguish  no  difference,  and  it  is  only 
by  the  use  of  the  goniometer  that  any  variation  in  the  quanti- 
ties of  their  angles  can  be  determined. 

Now  although  the  crystals  resemble  each  other  so  nearly 
in  external  appearance,  it  is  apparent  ttyat  they  cannot  with 
any  propriety  be  classed  together,  because  they  differ  so  es- 
sentially in  their  qualities. 

On  the  contrary,  some  minerals,  although  composed  of 
nearly  the  same  ingredients,  differ  entirely  in  external  form, 
colour,  fracture,  and  lustre.  Thus  quartz  is  sometimes  colour- 
less and  transparent,  and  in  the  form  of  a  perfectly  symmet- 
rical solid,  and  sometimes  it  is  red,  yellow,  purple,  or  brown, 
the  form  continuing  the  same.  Other  specimens  of  quartz 
are  amorphous,  that  is,  without  any  regular  form,  and  these 
present  a  great  variety  of  colours,  fracture,  lustre,  and  texture. 
Still,  all  these  varieties  are  essentially  composed  of  the  same 
constituent,  silex,  the  only  difference  being-,  that  one  variety 
contains  a  small  portion  of  the  oxide  of  some  metal,  on  which" 
its  colour  depends,  which  the  other  wants. 

The  place  of  every  mineral  in  the  arrangement  being  de- 
termined by  its  essential  qualities,  it  is  obvious  that  a  resem- 
blance of  colour  or  form,  constitutes  a  difference  which  may 
be  only  accidental,  and  that  the  only  sure  method  of  arrange- 
ment must  depend  on  the  composition  of  each  individual 
species.  Thus  when  we  find,  on  chemical  analysis,  that  a 
number  of  minerals  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  quartz, 
or  silex,  though  they  differ  in  colour,  form,  transparency,  and 
other  external  characters,  still,  in  the  most  essential  property, 
that  is,  composition,  they  closely  resemble  each  other,  and 
therefore  ought  to  be  arranged  together.  For  the  same  rea- 
son, all  the  varieties  of  carbonate  of  lime,  though  they  differ 


How  are  minerals  arranged  in  systematic  books? — Does  the  near  re- 
semblance of  crystalline  forms  indicate  a  similarity  of  composition? — Do 
minerals  of  the  same  essential  composition  often  differ  much  from  each 
other  in  fracture,  form,  and  colour?— Why  is  the  chemical  method  of  ar- 
rangement the  only  sure  one  ? 


MINERALOGY.  63 

from  each  other  in  almost  every  external  respect,  still  agree 
in  the  essential  property  of  composition,  and  therefore  are 
arranged  accordingly. 

The  composition  of  minerals  is  determined  by  chemical 
analysis,  which  consists  in  separating  each  ingredient,  or  ele- 
ment, of  which  the  substance  is  composed,  from  the  others, 
so  that  each  may  be  tested,  and  weighed,  or  otherwise  ex- 
amined by  itself  These  processes,  where  the  mineral  is 
composed  of  many  elementary  substances,  are  long  and  dif- 
ficult, requiring  great  skill  and  much  practical  knowledge  of 
chemistry. 

The  principal  substances  of  which  minerals  are  composed, 
besides  the  metals,  are  what  were  formerly  known  under  the 
general  name  of  the  earths.  These  substances  are  now  some 
of  them  considered  metallic  oxides,  or  metals  forming  earths, 
when  united  to  oxygen,  in  which  state  they  naturally  exist. 
They  are  lime,  barytes,  strontites,  magnesia,  silex,  alumine, 
ittria,  glucina,  zirconia,  and  thorina. 

Of  these  it  is  not  certain  that  any  are  composed  of  a  metal 
and  oxygen,  except  the  four  first  named,  though,  by  analogy, 
the  metallic  nature  of  the  others  is  inferred. 

Besides  these  earths,  mineral  substances  contain  three 
alkalies,  called  potash,  soda,  and  lithia.  The  basis  of  potash 
is  a  metal  of  a  silver-white  colour,  and  so  light  as  to  swim  on 
water.  It  is  called  'potassium.  The  basis  of  soda  is  also  a 
metal  similar  in  its  appearance  and  properties  to  potassium. 
It  is  called  sodium.  When  potassium  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
absorbs  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  or  burns,  and  is  thereby 
converted  into  the  well  known  substance,  potash.  By  a  simi- 
lar process,  sodium  is  converted  into  soda.  These  circum- 
stances are  a  sufficient  proof  that  the  basis  of  potash  and 
soda  are  metals.  The  basis  of  the  other  alkali,  lithia,  is  also 
of  a  metallic  nature,  and  is  called  lithium.  The  metallic  bases 
of  the  earths  and  alkalies  are  called  metalloids,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  other,  or  more  perfect  metals. 

Some  of  the  earths  above  enumerated  form  the  principal 
parts  of  a  great  number  of  minerals,  while  others  have  only 


How  is  the  composition  of  minerals  determined  ? — In  what  does  analysis 
consist  ?— Is  the  analysis  of  minerals,  a  simple,  or  a  laborious  and  com- 
plicated process  1 — What  are  the  principal  substances  of  which  minerals 
are  composed,  besides  the  metals  ? — What  are  the  names  of  the  earths  ?-— 
Which  of  these  are  metallic  oxides? — What  three  alkalies  are  found  in 
minerals'? — What  is  the  metallic  base  of  potash  called? — What  is  the 
metallic  base  of  soda  called  ? — By  what  general  term  are  the  metallic 
bases  of  these  substances  known  ? 
5* 


54  INTRODUCTION  TO 

been  found  in  a  few  rare  specimens.  The  most  common  and 
abundant  earths  are  lime  and  silex.  These  form  the  chief  bulk 
of  the  mountains  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Alumine,  which  is 
the  base  of  clay,  is  also  very  abundant.  On  the  contrary, 
zirconia,  has  only  been  found  in  two  precious  stones,  zircon, 
and  hyacinth;  and  glucina,  ittria,  and  thorina,  have  each  been 
detected  but  in  a  few  instances,  and  only  in  minute  quantities. 

The  number  of  metals  known,  besides  the  metalloids,  are 
29.  Their  names  are  as  follows: — platinum,  gold,  silver, 
palladium,  rhodium,  iridium,  osmium,  mercury,  nickel,  colum- 
bium,  tungsten,  chromium,  molybdenum,  arsenic,  tellurium, 
selenium,  cerium,  titanium,  uranium,  cobalt,  bismuth,  antimony, 
lead,  copper,  cadmium,  tin,  zinc,  iron,  manganese.  The 
metals  are  all  simple,  or  elementary  bodies,  that  is,  they  can- 
not be  decomposed  or  separated  into  more  simple  elements  or 
parts. 

Includingthe  metalloids,  there  are  forty  metals  in  the  whole, 
all  elementary  bodies,  found  in  the  earth.  Besides  these, 
chemists  enumerate  ten  or  eleven  other  simple  substances. 
These  are  the  gases,  oxygen,  chlorine,  hydrogen,  and  nitro- 
gen, and  the  solids,  iodine,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  and 
boron,  which  is  the  basis  of  borax,  and  bromine,  which  is  a 
substance  newly  discovered  in  sea  water,  resembling  iodine  in 
its  properties. 

The  whole  number  of  simple,  or  individual  substances, there- 
fore,  which  compose  all  that  variety  of  rocks,  stones,  metals, 
and  earths,  found  under  the  surface  of  the  globe,  as  well  as  all 
the  trees  and  vegetables  which  grow  on  it,  and  all  the  men 
and  animals  which  inhabit  it,  inclujing'  all  kinds  of  fish  and 
shells  that  live  in  the  sea,  amount  to  only  fifty,  or  fifty-one. 
This  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the  wisdom  and  power  of  the 
Creator  ;  for  who  beside  Him  "  who  brought  all  thino-s  out  of 
nothing,"  could  have  made  such  an  endless  variety  of  forms, 
colours,  and  modes  of  existence,  out  of  such  simple  means? 

Many  of  these  substances  are  common  to  the  three  kingdoms 
of  nature,  the  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral.  Thus  ox- 
ygen, nitrogen,  hydrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  carbon,  are 


Which  are  the  most  common  and  abundant  enrths? — What  is  said  of 
the  other  earths  ? — What  number  of  metals  are  known,  exclusive  of  the 
metalloids? — Are  the  metals  simple,  or  compound  bodies?— Including  the 
metalloids,  what  is  the  number  of  metals  ? — What  other  elementary  bodies 
are  there,  besides  the  metals? — What  is  the  whole  number  of  simple  sub- 
stances of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed,  including  all  the  ob- 
jects existing  thereon  ? — What  elements  are  found  in  the  three  kingdoms 
of  nature  ? 


MINERALOGY.  55 

found  combined  with  other  substances,  in  animals,  vegetables, 
and  minerals.  All  the  other  simple  substances,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  chlorine,  may  be  considered  as  peculiar  to  the 
eartii  and  sea,  though  iron  and  perhaps  one  or  two  of  the  other 
metals  are  formed  in  minute  quantities  in  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble bodies.  Chlorine  is  an  artificial  gas,  obtained  by  mixing 
together  common  salt,  black  oxide  of  manganese,  and  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  never  has  been  discovered  as  a  natural  sub- 
stance. Oxygen  and  hydrogen  exist  in  a  state  of  combination 
in  vast  abundance,  since  they  are  the  elements  which  form 
water.  Nitrogen  also  exists  in  abundance,  since  it  forms  four 
fifths  of  the  atmosphere  which  we  breathe,  the  other  fifth  be- 
ing oxygen.  Nitrogen  also  forms  a  considerable  proportion 
of  all  animal  substances,  and  is  found  in  nitre,  or  nitrate  of 
potash,  and  in  certain  vegetables.  Phosphorus  composes  a 
part  of  certain  minerals  called  phosphates,  as  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  phosphate  of  iron.  Sulphur  is  a  constituent  in  a 
great  proportion  of  mineral  compounds.  These  are  called 
sulphurets.  About  one  half  of  the  metals  are  found  combined 
with  sulphur,  forming  the  sulphurets,  of  silver,  of  lead,  or 
iron,  &c.  Sulphur  is  also  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  volcanoes,  being  sublimed  or  brought  up  by  the  heat 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  probably  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  metallic  sulphurets. 

Carbon  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  earth,  being  the  chief 
element  in  the  composition  of  coal.  It  is  also  founcf  combined 
with  iron,  forming  a  carburet  of  that  metal.  The  diamond  is 
composed  entirely  'of  carbon.  Iodine  is  contained  in  sea 
water,  and  in  the  waters  of  several  springs.  Boron  is  the  basis 
of  boracic  acid,  which  is  a  part  of  the  composition  of  the  well 
known  substance  called  borax. 

All  the  metals,  except  platina  and  gold,  are  found  mineral- 
ized, or  in  the  state  of  ores.  Many  of  them  are  also  found  in 
the  native  or  metallic  state.  This  is  the  case  with  silver,  bis- 
piuth,  copper,  ant'vmony,  arsenic,  iron,  nickel,  palladium,  and 
quicksilver.  All  these  metals,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of 
bismuth,  are  however  much  more  frequently  found  in  the 
state  of  ores  than  in  their  native,  or  metallic  state. 


Is  chlorine  a  natural,  or  an  artificial  gas  ?— In  what  natural  substance 
do -s  oxyeren  and  hydrogen  exist  in  abundance? — What  is  the  composi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere? — AVhere  is  phosphorus  f  mnd  ? — Where  is  sul- 
phur found  7 — What  m'neral  substance  is  composed  chiefly  of  carbon?— 
What  is  the  diamond  composed  of? — Where  is  iodine  found? — What  is 
the  basis  of  boracic  acid  ? — Which  of  the  metals  are  never  found  mineral 
ized? 


56  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Gold  and  platina,  though  never  found  mineralized,  or  in 
the  state  of  ores,  seldom  occur  perfectly  pure.  Gold  exists  in 
its  native  state,  alloyed,  or  mixed  with  silver,  copper,  iron,  and 
several  other  metals.  And  platina  always  contains  the 
metals  osmium^  iridium,  iron,  and  often  several  others. 

Some  of  the  metals  are  mineralized  by  only  one  or  two 
substances,  while  others  are  found  combined  with  several. 
Thus  mercury  is  chiefly  mineralized  by  sulphur,  and  is  never 
found  in  combination  with  oxygen,  carbon,  or  any  of  the  min- 
eral acids,  except  the  muriatic.  Its  ores  are  therefore  few  in 
number,  and  rarely  found.  Iron,  on  the  contrary,  is  capable 
of  very  numerous  combinations,  being  mineralized  by  oxygen, 
sulphur,  carbon,  phosphorus,  carbonic  acid,  and  many  othei 
substances.  Its  ores  are  consequently  very  numerous,  and 
exist  in  nearly  every  section  of  country. 

Copper  and  lead  are  also  widely  disseminated,  and  are  each 
found  in  combination  with  a  variety  of  mineralizing  substances. 

We  come  now  to  the  classification  and  description  of  Min- 
erals, the  object  of  which  is,  to  distinguish  them  from  each 
other.  At  the  head  of  each  class  the  elements,  or  ingredients 
which  chiefly  compose  the  species,  are  enumerated.  The 
particular  composition  of  each  species,  when  important,  is 
given  with  the  description. 

CLASS  I. 
ACIDIFEROUS   EARTHY  MINERALS. 

Under  this  head  are  included  such  minerals  as  consist  of 
an  earth  combined  with  an  acid;  some  of  them  contain  small 
portions  of  metal,  as  iron,  manganese,  and  perhaps  chrome,  &c. 
GENUS  i. — LIME. 

This  earth  has  never  been  found  pure  except  in  small  quan- 
tities. For  the  most  part  it  is  found  combined  with  carbonic 
acid,  forming  carbonate  of  lime  ;  it  also  occurs  combined  with 
sulphuric  acid,  forming  sulphate  of  lime,  or  gypsum  ;  with 
phosphoric  acid,  forming  phosphate  of  lime  ;  and  with  several 
other  substances. 

Pure  lime  is  white,  hot  to  the  taste,  corrosive  to  the  touch, 
and  capable,  when  water  is  thrown  on  it  by  degrees,  of  con- 
solidating it,  and  extricating  a  degree  of  heat  which  sets  wood 
on  fire ;  it  destroys  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  and  it 
turns  vegetable  blues  to  green. 

Are  gold  and  platina  found  perfectly  pure? — By  what  substances  is 
mercury  mineralized? — By  \\hat  substances  is  iron  mineralized  ? — Is  lime 
ever  found  in  its  pure  state? — With  what  other  substances  is  lime  princi- 
pally found  combined  ? 


MINERALOGY.  a- 

The  compounds  of  lime  are  so  abundant  in  nature,  that  ge- 
ologists have  estimated  one  fourth  of  the  crust  of  the  globe  to 
be  formed  of  them. 

Species  1.     CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

This  species  includes  a  great  variety  of  calcareous  mine- 
rals, many  of  which  differ  wide.'yfrom  each  other  in  their  ex- 
ternal characters.  Some  varieties  occur  in  the  form  of  crys- 
tals, of  which  there  is  an  immense  number  of  secondary  mo- 
difications; some  varieties  are  compact,  some  are  pulverulent, 
some  are  granular.  The  colours  which  the  varieties  of  this 
species  assume,  are  so  various,  as  to  include  nearly  the  whole 
catalogue ;  the  prevailing  colour,  however,  is  white,  or  grayish 
white. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  caustic  or 
quicklime  before  the  blow  pipe ;  effervesces  with  acids. 

Composition.     Lime  57  ;  carbonic  acid  43. — Klaproth. 
Variety  1.     CALCAREOUS  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  various,  generally  white, 
yellowish,  or  gray,  often  red,  &c.  occurs  crystallized  ;  forms 
extremely  numerous,  amounting  to  upwards  of  500  secondary 
varieties,  all  originating  from  an  obtuse  rhomboid,  the  alter- 
nate ano-les  of  which  are  105°  5',  and  74°  55';  fragments 
rhomboidal ;  lustre,  more  or  less  shining,  often  pearly;  frac- 
ture uneven,  but  difficult  to  be  obtained  on  account  of  the 
ease  with  which  it  separates  at  the  natural  joints;  cleavage 
in  direction  of  the  natural  joints,  very  easy  and  perfect,  dis- 
playing smooth  polished  faces,  transparent  or  translucent; 
the  transparent,  particularly  that  from  Iceland,  doubly  refrac- 
tive; often  occurs  in  hemitrope,  or  macled  crystals;  yields  to 
the  knife:  sp.  gr.  2.72. 

Only  a  few  of  the  most  common  forms  can  be  illustrated 
by  figures, 

Pig.  66.  Pig.  67.  Pig.  63.  Pig.  69.  Fig.  70. 


What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  carbonate  of  lime?— What  are  the 
colours  of  carbonate  of  lime  1 — What  is  the  primitive  form  of  carbonate  of 
lime  7 


56  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Fig.  66.     The  primitive  rhomboidal  prism. 

Fig.  67.     The  acute  rhomboid. 

Fig.  68.     A  six-sided  prism. 

Fig.  69.     A  hexahedrai  prism  with  pentagonal  sides,  and 
terminated  by  pentagonal  faces. 

Fig.  70.  A  dodecahedron,  composed  of  two  six-sided  pyr- 
amids joined  base  to  base;  each  face  being  a  scalene  triangle. 
This  variety  at  first  view  appears  as  two  triangular  pyramids, 
but  on  closer  inspection,  each  of  the  three  larger  sides  will  be 
found  to  contain  two  scalene  triangular  faces.  These  crystals 
ate  commonly  grouped,  so  that  only  one  of  the  pyramids  ap- 
pear distinct.  It  is  a  common  variety,  and  bears  the  name  of 
hog- tooth  spar. 
Fig.  71. 

k\         Fig.  71.     The  double  six-sided  pyramid,  with  the 
\  summits  truncated,  and  an  outline  of  the  primitive 
form  in  the  centre. 


Fig.  72.     The  same  with  truncated  summits  and 
solid  angles. 


Its  localities  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Fine  crystals  of 
some  of  its  varieties  being  found  in  almost  every  limestone 
country.  A  considerable  variety  of  beautiful  specimens  are 
found  at  Lockport,  and  Leyden,  N.  Y. ;  Partridge  Island, 
Nova  Scotia,  in  fine  crystals,  sometimes  in  double  hemitropes. — 
Emmons. 

Phillips  says  the  rarest  and  most  beautiful  crystals  are  found 
in  Derbyshire,  and  the  northern  parts  of  England. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  the  carbonates  of  lead,  stron- 
tian,  and  barytes ;  and  also  from  the  sulphates  of  barytes  and 
strontian  ;  it  may  be  distinguished  by  its  burning  to  quicklime  : 
sulphate  of  lime  does  not  effervesce  with  acids. 

Variety  2.     ARGENTINE. 

External  characters.  Colors,  milk  white,  reddish  or  gray- 
ish white;  lustre  pearly;  occurs  in  thin  tabular  plates,  gene- 

What  is  the  shape  of  that  variety  called  hog-tooth  spar? — What  are  the 
distinctive  characters  of  this  mineral  ? — What  is  the  colour  and  composi- 
tion of  argentine. 


MINERALOGY.  69 

rally  curved,  or  undulated;  translucent,  or  nearly  opake; 
structure  of  the  massive,  slaty,  presenting  curved  shining  lay 
ers ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  easily  broken  ;  phosphorescent  on 
hot  coals. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  decrepitates  and  sepa- 
rates into  thin  plates,  and  finally  becomes  caustic  quicklime. 
Effervesces  with  acids. 

Composition.  Lime  56  ;  carbonic  acid  39.33;  silex  1.66; 
oxide  of  iron  1  ;  water  2. — Klaproth. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Norway,  Cornwall,  Granard  in  Ire- 
land, &c. 

U.  S.  Southampton  lead  mine,  and  Williamsburgh,  Mass., 
Franconia,  N.  H. 

Variety  3.     SATIN  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  white,  white  or 
pale  red ;  occurs  massive,  consisting  of  fine  delicate  fibres 
adhering  closely  together ;  lustre,  that  of  satin ;  bears  a  fine 
polish;  often  chatoyant :  translucent. 

Composition.     Lime  50.8  ;  carbonic  acid  47.6. — Pepys. 

Localities.  The  finest  specimens  are  from  Cumberland, 
Brig. 

U,  S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md. ;  Cumberland  Valley,  Pa.  • 
Newburyport,  Mass. 

Satin  spar  when  polished  is  a  very  beautiful  mineral.  It  is 
used  for  inlaying,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  ornaments,  as 
necklaces,  ear-rings,  &c.  instead  of  pearl.  It  is  now  a  scarce 
mineral. 

Variety  4.     AGARIC  MINERAL.     ROCK  MILK. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  or  grayish  white ; 
occurs  in  soft  earthy  masses,  composed  of  particles  slightly 
cohering;  soils  the  fingers;  opake;  tender;  spongfy;  for  a 
moment  swims  on  water ;  effervesces  with  acids. 

Composition.     Nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  is  disintegrated  marble. 

It  is  found  in  veins,  in  calcareous  rocks. 

Variety  5.     APHRITE.*     EARTH  FOAM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white:  occurs  in  masses, 
composed  of  scales,  of  a  shining  pearly  lustre;  opake;  solt  to 
the  touch. 

*  From  the  Greek ;  a  foam-like  substance. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  satin  spar  ?— What  is  the  use  of  satin  spar  1 


60  INTRODUCTION  TO 

It  is  found  in  cavities,  or  veins  in  calcareous  rocks. 
Subspecies  I.     STALACTICAL  CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colours  various,  mostly  white  or  yel- 
lo-.vish  white,  or  gray;  occurs  in  concretions,  stalacticaJ,  bot- 
ryoiJal ;  mamrneilated  and  in  long  pendulous  concretions, 
like  icicles;  lustre  pearly,  or  silky. 

Variety  1.     STALACTITE. 

It  occurs  in  long  straight  pendulous  masses,  or  hollow  tubes; 
or  in  larger  tuberose,  irregular  masses,  with  a  rough,  warty 
suffice;  sometimes  several  round  pieces  are  joined  together, 
making  irregular  flattened  masses;  fracture  fibrous,  often 
vacating  from  the  centre  of  the  mass  ;  translucent. 

Stalactites  are  found  attached  to  the  roofs  of  caverns  in  lime- 
stone countries,  where  they  are  continually  forming. 

How  formed.-  The  water  percolates  through  the  limestone 
rocks,  where  it  becomes  impregnated  with  calcareous  particles. 
On  exposure  to  the  air  of  the  cavern,  the  water  evaporates, 
leaving  the  particles  of  limestone,  which  adhere,  become  solid, 
or  form  hollow  tubes,  probably  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
surface  where  the  stalactite  begins  to  form. 

Sometimes  the  branch  of  a  tree,  which  happens  to  be  in  a 
proper  situation,  serves  as  a  nucleus  for  the  stalactite,  and 
becomes  inc rusted  with  the  limestone,  the  wood  remaining 
perfectly  preserved. 

Variety  2.     STALAGMITE.     ALABASTER. 

Colour  white  or  yellowish,  commonly  arranged  in  undulated 
lines,  or  in  concentric  circles;  structure  foliated,  fibrous,  or 
compact:  translucent. 

The  water  which  drops  from  the  forming  stalactites,  or 
trickles  down  from  the  roof,  or  the  sides  of  the  cavern,  forms  the 
stalagmite  on  its  floor.  Sometimes  the  stalactite  and  the  sta- 
lagmite meet,  forming  pillars  which  rest  on  the  floor,  and  sup- 
port, the  roof.  These  deposites  sometimes  fill  large  caverns, 
producing  imitative  forms,  as  of  altars,  pillars,  and  with  the 
hf'p  of  the  imagination,  of  animals,  priests  in  their  robes,  &c. 

Uses.  When  the  stalagmite  is  compact,  of  a  good  colour, 
and  translucent,  it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  orna- 
mental and  useful  articles  under  the  name  of  alabaster.  Ol 
this,  candlesticks,  vases,  the  frames  of  time-pieces,  boxes,  &c 
are  made. 


What  is  stalactite? — How  is  stalactite  formed? — How  is  stalagr-iiu 
f>"-nied  ?— What  is  the  difference  between  stalactite  and  stalagmite  ?-- 
What  are  the  uses  of  tfiese  two  minerals  ? 


MINERALOGY.  61 

Compact  gypsum  is  also  worked  into  articles  of  ornament 
and  use,  and  called  alabaster.  The  two  kinds  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  a  drop  of  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid,  which  will 
cause  an  effervescence  on  the  stalagmite,  but  not  on  the  gyp- 
sum. The  stalagmite  is  also  harder  than  the  gypsum. 

Localities.  One  of  the  most  famous  localities  is  the  grotto 
of  Antiparos;  another  is  Woodman's  cave  in  the  Hartz ;  se- 
veral localities  exist  in  Derbyshire,  &c. 

U.  S.  Madison's  cave,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Blue  Ridge, 
and  Wier's  cave,  both  in  Va. 

Subspecies  2.     GRANULAR  LIMESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  yellowish,  blu- 
ish gray,  reddish,  greenish;  sometimes  these  colours  run  in 
stripes,  spots,  or  clouds;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  minute 
grains,  or  crystals  of  a  lamellar  structure,  and  brilliant  lustre; 
fracture  splintery,  or  slaty;  translucent. 

Some  specimens  very  nearly  resemble  loaf  sugar,  both  in 
texture  and  colour. 

It  never  contains  organic  remains,  as  shells,  but  frequently 
encloses  quartz,  garnets,  mica,  talc,  &c.  Hence  it  is  a  primi- 
tive rock. 

Primitive  limestone  forms  immense  mountains,  in  many 
parts  of  the  globe.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  great 
chain  in  Northern  Asia,  reaching  from  the  Uralian  mountains 
to  the  river  Amur,  an  extent  of  more  than  1000  leagues,  is  of 
this  kind  of  rock.  The  Pyrenees  are  also  in  part  formed  of 
primitive  limestone,  and  in  the  Alps  large  beds  of  primitive 
marble  are  found. — Pinker  ton. 

Localities.  These  are  so  numerous  that  only  such  as  are 
quarried  can  be  given. 

Statuary  marble.  The  finest  and  most  perfect .  kinds  of 
primitive  limestone,  have,  from  time  immemorial,  been  em- 
ployed in  architectural  decorations,  and  in  statuary.  Hence 
it  is  commonly  called  statuary  marble. 

Egyptian  marble.  Colours  milk-white,  with  silvery  scales 
of  mica;  also,  grayish  white,  passing  into  blue;  but  the  most 
beautiful  is  black.  The  red  marble  of  Upper  Egypt,  called 
the  rosso  antico,  of  which  the  Indian  Bacchus  is  made,  and 
other  exquisite  remains,  is  said  to  surpass  in  beauty  all  other 
marbles. 


What  are  the  colours  of  granular  limestone? — How  is  it  known  that 
this  is  a  p  imitive  rock? — What  is  statuary  marble? — What  is  said  of 
the  red  marble  of  Upper  Egypt? 


62  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Parian  marble.  This  was  employed  by  the  most  ancient 
Greek  sculptors;  but  being  yellowish  and  coarse  grained,  it 
was  supplanted  by  that  of  Etruria,  and  afterwards  by  that  of 
Carrara. 

The  Venus  de  Medici.  Diana  hunting,  and  Venus  leaving 
the  bath,  are  of  Parian  marble. 

Pentelican  marble.  This  comes  from  the  vicinity  of  Athens. 
It  is  white,  with  black  crystals  of  hornblende,  and  occasionally 
green  veins  of  talc.  Of  this,  some  of  the  noblest  Grecian 
monuments  are  constructed.  A  Bacchus  in  repose,  a  Jason, 
a  Paris,  &c.  of  this  marble,  remain  at  Paris. 

Translucent  marble.  At  Venice,  and  in  the  different  towns 
of  Lombardy,  are  columns  of  marble  so  translucent  that  the 
light  of  a  candle  is  visible  through  pretty  thick  masses. 

Elastic  marble.  Tables  of  ancient  elastic  marble  are  still 
extant  at  Rome.  Pinkerton  supposes  that  this  quality  may  be 
imparted  by  certain  modifications  of  heat.  Prof.  Cleveland 
states  that  flexible  marble*is  found  at  Pittsford,  Vt.  and  at  Pitts- 
field,  Mass,  arid  that  according  to  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Meade,  it  loses  this  property  on  being  heated,  but  regains  it 
on  being  plunged  into  water. 

The  foreign  specimens  of  this  kind  which  I  have  seen  are 
opake,  and  without  polish,  resembling  fine  sandstone. 

Lun'i  marble.  Carrara  marble.  These  two  kinds  come 
from  adjacent  localities.  That  of  Luni  is  pure  white,  and  is 
preferred  to  that  of  Carrara,  which  is  often  stained  with  veins 
of  gray. 

The  quarry  of  Luni  is  said  to  have  been  opened  in  the  time 
of  Julius  Ca3sar. 

Laconiari  marble.  Verde  antico.  This  came  from  Mount 
Tagetus,  in  Lictmia,  and  is  among  the  most  celebrated  and 
ancient  marbles.  It  is  described  as  being  of  a  most  cheerful 
green,  like  that  of  tender  herbs  or  grass,  variegated  with  veins 
of  a  glassy  white,  winding  in  a  spiral  manner. — Pinkerton1  s 
Petrology. 

American  marbles.  The  United  States  afford  many  varie- 
ties of  primitive  marble,  several  of  which  have  been  quarried 
for  useful  and  ornamental  purposes. 

Philadelphia  marble.  Colour,  white,  or  grayish  white, 
sometimes  variegated  with  veins  or  clouds  of  blue.  It  re- 
ceives a  fine,  polish,  and  is  extensively  employed. 

Potomac  marble.     This  is  a  breccia,  and  is  composed  of 

What  is  said  of  Parian  marble?— What  is  said  of  elastic  marble?— 
What  are  the  principal  localities  of  American  marble '/ 


MINERALOGY.  63 

founded  and  angular  fragments  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that 
of  an  ostrich's  egg.  Colours  red,  white,  gray,  and  blackish 
brown  intermixed,  so  as  to  give  the  whole  a  highly  varie- 
gated aspect.  It  bears  a  fine  polish,  and  is  a  singularly 
beautiful  marble.  Of  this  marble  are  formed  the  shafts  of  the 
columns  in  the  chamber  of  Representatives  at  Washington. 
They  are  about  twenty  feet  high,  and  two  feet  in  diameter. 
The  locality  of  this  marble  is  about  fifty  miles  above  Washing- 
ton, on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac,  in  Md. — See  Cleveland. 

New-Haven  marble.  Predominant  colour,  gray,  or  bluish 
gray,  richly  variegated  with  veins,  or  clouds  of  white,  green, 
or  black  ;  some  specimens  are  clouded  with  yellow,  or  orange ; 
in  others  the  prevailing  colour  is  green  with  black  clouds  of 
chromate,  and  magnetic  oxide  of  iron.  The  principal  quar- 
ry is  seven  miles  from  New-Haven,  Ct.  Prof.  Silliman  ob- 
serves, that  when  this  marble  contains  the  green  colours,  it 
belono-s  to  the  variety  usually  called  verde  antique.  Chim- 
ney-pieces of  this  marble,  of  which  there  are  four  in  the  cap- 
itol  at  Washington,  cost  from  $250  to  $500  each. 

Vermont  marbles.  The  state  of  Vermont  affords  several 
beautiful  marbles,  viz. — 

Middlebury  marble.  Prevailing  colour,  gray,  running  into 
dark  brown  of  different  shades.  Some  specimens  are  pure 
white.  This  marble  receives  a  fine  polish,  and  is  sawn  for 
tomb-stones,  chimney-pieces,  &c.  Professor  Hall  states,  that 
during  the  years  1~809  and  10,  20,000  feet  of  slabs  were 
cut  by  one  mill,  containing  sixty-five  saws,  and  that  the  sale 
of  marble  during  the  same  period  amounted  to  about  11,000 
dollars  in  value. 

Quarries  have  also  been  opened  at  Pittsford,  Shaftsbury, 
and  Scranton.  in  Vt. — Cleveland. 

Massachusetts  affords  several  quarries  of  marble. 

Professor  Dewey  states  that  the  annual  value  of  the  marble 
quarried  in  Berkshire  county  alone,  amounts  to  more  than 
40,000  dollars.  The  localities  in  this  state  are — Lanesborough  ; 
the  colour  is  white  and  brownish — Stockbridge  ;  colour  white, 
or  clouded  with  dark  shades — Sheffield  ;  colour  white,  or 
clouded  with  dark  shades. — Robinson. 

Tko?naston  marble.  Colours  white  or  grayish  white,  diver- 
sified with  veins  of  a  different  colour.  In  the  finest  pieces, 
vhe  predominant  colour  is  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  interspersed 
by  whitish  clouds.  It  is  a  rich  and  beautiful  marble,  receives 
a  fine  polish,  and  is  well  fitted  for  ornamental  purposes. 
Three  mills,  containing  in  all  150  saws,  are  employed  in  saw- 
ing and  polishing  the  marble.  The  price  of  the  best  slabs  is 


64  INTRODUCTION  TO 

two  dollars  a  square  foot,  and  about  12,000  feet  are  annually 
sold.— Cleveland. 

Subspecies  3.     COMMON  LIMESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours  white,  yellowish  white,  gray, 
brown,  reddish,  bluish,  black,  &c. ;  occurs  compact,  some- 
times granular ;  fracture  large  conchoidal  or  splintery,  some- 
times earthy;  lustre  dull,  or  glimmering;  sometimes  it  is  va- 
riegated or  striped  of  different  colours ;  translucent  on  the 
edges,  or  opake.  Sp.  gr.  2.6 ;  yields  to  the  knife. 

Chemical  characters.  It  burns  to  quicklime  and  effervesces 
with  acids. 

Composition.  It  is  an  impure  carbonate  of  lime,  and  gene- 
rally contains  portions  of  silex,  alumine,  or  oxide  of  iron. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  secondary  or  compact 
limestone  from  primitive  marble,  without  referring  to  its  lo- 
cality. In  fact,  common  limestone  runs  into  marl  on  the  one 
side,  and  primitive  marble  on  the  other. 

Secondary  limestone  of  the  oldest  formation  contains  oxide 
of  iron,  sulphuret  of  lead,  manganese,  sulphuret  of  zinc,  &c. 
but  generally  no  organic  remains. 

The  newer  formations  are  conchitic,  or  contain  shells. 
Pinkerton  says  that  some  of  the  most  compact  varieties  of 
marble  are  of  this  kind. 

It  is  understood  that  conchitic  limestone  is  of  course  of  se- 
condary formation.  But  ifr  is  not  true  that  every  secondary 
limestone  contains  shells. 

Secondary  limestone  is  sometimes  granular,  but  perhaps 
only  when  it  is  passing  into  the  primitive  kind. 

Uses.  When  burnt  it  furnishes  quicklime,  which,  when 
s.acked  and  mixed  with  a  portion  of  sand,  forms  mortar,  an 
article  of  indispensable  use  in  building,  plastering  the  walls 
of  houses,  &c.  It  is  also  employed  extensively  as  a  building 
stone,  and  some  of  the  most  beautiful  marbles  belong  to  this 
species. 

CONCHITIC,    OR    SECONDARY    MARBLES. 

Pinkertoa,  in  his  Petrology,  has  enumerated  a  great  variety 
of  conchitic  marbles.  From  him  we  shall  extract  an  account 
of  some  of  the  most  singular  and  beautiful. 

Lumachella  Marble.     Colour,  gray  or  brown ;  often  deep 

What  are  the  principal  colours  of  common  limestone  ? — What  is  its  com- 
position?— What  is  the  principal  use  of  this  species?— What  is  the  coloui 
of  Lumacnelle. 


MINERALOGY.  65 

brown,  containing-  shells  which  form  circles  or  semicircles,  of 
a  golden  colour  ;  also  shells,  which  in  certain  directions  throw 
out  blood-red  reflections,  similar  to  the  Labrador  felspar. 
Some  specimens  also  reflect  the  green  and  blue  tints  of  the 
opal,  and  nearly  with  equal  splendour. 

This  marble  was  known  to  the  Romans.  Its  locality,  for- 
merly unknown,  has  been  re-discovered.  It  is  found  in  small 
quantities  at  Bleyberg,  in  Carinthia. 

From  the  examination  of  a  specimen  of  this  singular  and 
most  beautiful  marble,  in  the  cabinet  of  D.  VVatkinson,  Esq. 
of  this  city,  it  is  obvious  that  the  red  reflections  spring  from 
the  fragments  of  a  shell ;  but  which  is  not  discoverable,  ex- 
cept on  close  inspection. 

Panno  di  morto,  or  funeral  pall.  Colour  deep  black,  sprin- 
kled with  white  shells,  like  snails,  an  inch  or  more  in  length, 
at  distant  and  rather  regular  intervals. 

This  kind  is  sold  at  Rome,  and  is  very  scarce  and  highly 
esteemed.  Its  locality  is  unknown. 

England  produces  some  beautiful  shell  marble. 

Pentwortk  marble.  Colour  gray,  with  a  cast  of  green,  and 
thickly  set  with  shells,  some  of  which  are  filled  with  white 
spar,  giving  it  a  variegated  and  beautiful  appearance. 

Bristol  marble.  This  is  a  fine  black  marble,  interspersed 
with  white  shells. 

Yorkshire  produces  a  gray  marble,  sprinkled  with  enthro- 
chites. 

Italy  is  famous  for  its  beautiful  marbles. 

Florence,  Lucca,  and  Pisa,  are  decorated  with  a  brick-red 
marble,  containing  white  ammonites. 

Fiorito  marble.  This  kind  is  marked  with  spots  resembling 
flowers.  Two  columns  of  it,  very  rich  in  colours,  are  said  to 
have  been  placed  in  Napoleon's  Museum  at  Paris.  They 
were  of  Roman  workmanship,  and  were  discovered  in  the 
ruins  of  Gabium,  four  leagues  from  Rome. 

Ruin  marble,  or  Pictorial  marble.  This  marble  is  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  Florence.  It  presents  angular  figures  of  a 
yellowish  brown,  running  into  a  deep  brown  colour,  on  a  base 
of  light  brown,  and  yellow,  gradually  passing  into  a  light  gray. 

At  a  certain  distance,  slabs  of  this  marble  so  nearly  repre- 
sent drawings  done  in  bistre,  on  a  ground  of  yellowish  brown, 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  convince  one  to  the  contrary. 

"One  is  amused,"  says  Brard,  "to  observe  in  it  kijids  of 


What  is  ruin,  or  pictorial  marble  ?— What  is  said  of  this  marble? 
6* 


66  INTRODUCTION  TO 

ruins ;  there  it  presents  a  Gothic  castle  half  destroyed  ;  here 
ruined  walls;  in  another  place,  old  bastions  5  and  what  still 
adds  to  the  delusion  is,  that  in  these  natural  paintings  there 
exists  a  kind  of  aerial  perspective,  very  sensibly  perceptible. 
The  lower  part,  or  what  forms  the  first  plane,  has  a  warm, 
and  bold  tone ;  the  second  follows  it,  and  weakens  as  it  in- 
creases in  distance ;  the  third  becomes  still  fainter,  while  the 
upper  part  presents,  in  the  distance,  a  whitish  zone,  and  finally, 
as  it  reaches  the  top,  blends  itself,  as  it  were,  with  the  clouds." 

These  different  colours  are  produced  by  the  infiltration  of 
different  coloured  oxides  of  iron,  into  the  fissures  of  this  mar- 
ble. It  never  bears  a  high  polish. 

Fine  specimens  of  this  marble  of  a  foot  or  two  square, 
sometimes  sell  for  exorbitant  prices. 

Spain  offers  the  conch itic  marbles  of  Granada,  and  Cordo- 
va, of  a  deep  red,  with  white  shells. 

France  abound    with  shell  marbles. 

From  Narbonne  comes  a  deep  black  kind,  with  white  be- 
lemnites. 

From  the  department  of  Aube,  is  brought  a  gray  marble, 
made  up  of  little  shells,  with  now  and  then  a  large  ammonite. 

Caen  marble.  This  beautiful  variety  comes  from  Caen  in 
Normandy.  It  is  of  a  chocolate  brown,  with  white  madre- 
pores, of  all  sizes  and  descriptions,  beautifully  variegated  with 
blue  and  red.  Of  this  the  tables  and  chimney-pieces  of  Paris 
are  made.  In  most  of  the  coffee-houses  may  be  seen  tables 
of  this  marble. 

Languedoc  or  St.  Baum  marble.  This  is  of  a  fiery  red 
colour,  mingled  with  white  and  gray  shells  disposed  in  convo- 
luted zones. 

The  eight  columns  which  decorate  Napoleon's  triumphal 
arch  in  the  Carousel  at  Paris,  are  of  this  marble. 

The  United  States  as  yet  presents  but  few  localities  of  shell 
marble.  Professor  Cleveland  hns  noticed  the  following: 

In  Pennsylvania,  Northumberland  Co.,  is  a  black  marble 
containing  white  specks,  like  the  Kilkenny  marble. 

In  New  York,  near  Hudson,  is  a  grayish  brown  marble, 
beautifully  variegated  with  encrinites  and  other  organic  re 
mains. 

Near  Seneca  Lake  is  found  a  variegated  marble,  which 
has  a  fine  grain,  receives  an  excellent  polish,  arid  will  proba- 
bly be  much  employed. 


Do  the  United  States  furnish  any  localities  of  shell  marble? — Where 
are  such  localities  ? 


MINERALOGY.  67 

Variety  1.     FETID  CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white  or  grayish  white; 
does  not  differ  in  external  characters  from  common  limestone. 
When  scraped  with  a  knife,  or  struck  with  a  hard  body,  it  ex- 
hales an  offensive  odour,  resembling  that  of  rotten  eggs. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  it  loses  its  odour, 
and  burns  to  quicklime',  effervesces  with  acids. 

The  offensive  odour  is  owing  to  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
which  probably  comes  from  a  small  quantity  of  bitumen  or  sul- 
phur, included  in  this  variety.  This  quality  is  lost  on  the  sur- 
face, and  in  small  fragments,  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

It  is  sometimes  found  in  nodular  masses. 

It  occurs  with  common  limestone  and  gypsum,  and  is  said 
to  form  mountains. 

Localities.     Germany,  France,  England,  &c. 

U.  S.  Allegany  Ridge,  Md.,  near  Rhinebeck,  Hyde  Park, 
near  Black  river,  Niagara  Falls,  and  Batavia,  N.  Y.  North- 
ford,  Conn.,  Stockbridge,  Mass. 

Variety  2.     BITUMINOUS  LIMESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brown,  passing  into  dark 
brown  or  black;  structure  compact,  or  sometimes  lamellar; 
when  rubbed,  struck,  or  heated,  emits  an  unpleasant  bituminous 
odour. 

Chemical  characters.  Loses  both  colour  and  odour  by  heat, 
and  hums  into  quicklime. 

It  belongs  to  secondary  rocks,  and  is  sometimes  found  with 
coal. 

Uses.  Phillips  says,  that  in  Dalmatia,  it  is  so  bituminousthat 
it  cuts  like  soap,  and  is  employed  in  the  construction  of  houses  5 
when  raised,  they  set  fire  to  the  walls,  the  bitumen  burns  out, 
and  the  stone  becomes  white;  the  roof  is  then  put  on  and  the 
house  finished.  It  is  also  polished  as  a  marble. 

Localities.     Ireland,  Scotland,  England,  and  France. 

U.  S.  Near  Middletown,  Conn,  where  it  presents  distinct 
impressions  of  fish. 

Variety  3.     ARGILLO-FERRUGINOUS  LIMESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  bluish,  black,  or  grayish 
blue;  occurs  massive,  in  beds,  and  in  globular  and  spheroidal 
pieces;  gives  an  argillaceous  odour  when  breathed  on  ;  when 
burnt  it  is  of  a  buff  colour:  tougher  than  common  limestone. 

What  produces  the  odour  in  fetid  carbonate  of  lime? — What  use  is  said 
to  be  made  of  bituminous  limestone  1 


68  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  yellowish  under  the  blow  pipe  j 
does  not  fall  to  powder  when  slacked ;  effervesces  with  acids. 

Lias  limestone,  which  encloses  ammonites  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  sea  shells,  with  the  bones  of  unknown  animals,  is 
similar  to  calp  in  composition.  Lias  is  employed  as  a  litho- 
graphic stone,  and  occurs  at  Lime,  in  Dorsetshire. 

Uses.      Calp  is  sometimes  used  as  a  building  stone. 

Some  varieties  form  a  cement  which  hardens  under  water. 

Subspecies  4.     CONCRETED  CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 
This  subspecies  contains  two  varieties,  both  of  which  appear 
to  be  formed  by  a  succession  of  layers. 

Variety  1.     OOLITE.     ROESTONE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  whitish,  yellowish  white,  or 
ash  gray;  occurs  in  masses  composed  of  globular  particles  of 
the  size  of  mustard  seed,  adhering  by  a  calcareous  cement  ; 
the  particles  are  composed  of  concentric  layers ;  fracture 
splintery;  opake. 

It  is  soft  when  taken  from  the  quarry,  but  hardens  in  the  air. 

The  houses  of  Bath  are  for  the  most  part  built  of  this  vari- 
ety of  common  limestone,  which  occurs  in  great  beds  above 
the  mountain  lime  of  England. — Phillips. 

This  stone  is  however  said  to  be  liable  to  disintegration,  and 
therefore  is  not  the  best  material  for  building.  • 

Variety  2.     PEASTONE.     PISOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  white,  brownish, 
or  reddish  ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  distinct  spheroidal 
concretions,  which  are  formed  of  thin  concentric  layers,  gen- 
erally with  a  grain  of  sand  at  the  centre  as  a  nucleus ;  these 
concretions  are  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  are  united  by  a 
calcareous  cement;  they  are  often  flattened  by  mutual  con- 
tact. 

Pisolite  is  found  among  alluvial  deposites,  particularly  at 
Carlsbad  in  Bohemia,  and  in  the  waters  that  supply  the  baths 
of  St.  Phillip,  in  Tuscany.  It  has  a  singular  and  interesting 
appearance. 

Subspecies  5.     CHALK. 

External  characters.     Colour,  white,  or  yellowish  white ; 
occurs  massive  ;  fracture  earthy  ;  meager  to  the  touch  ;  dull ; 
*  Because  it  resembles  the  roe  of  a  fish. 

In  what  form  does  the  oolite  occur? — Why  is  this  variety  called  roe 
•tone  1— What  is  the  form  of  peastone  1— Why  is  it  called  peastone? 


MINERALOGY. 

-  .'«c«t;  soils  the  fingers;  adheres  to  the  tongue;  gives 
a  white  streak. 

Chemical  characters.  EfTervesces  with  acids;  burns  to 
quicklime. 

Composition.     It  is  nearly  a  pure  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  is  one  of  the  newest  secondary  formations.  It  often 
contains  shells,  and  the  remains  of  amphibious  and  land  ani- 
mals ;  also  nodules  of  flint,  from  which  gun  flints  are  made. 

Chalk  sometimes  forms  beds,  rising  into  hills  several  hundred 
feet  high,  ani  which  are  remarkable  for  the  smooth  regularity 
of  their  outlines.  • 

Localities.  England,  particularly  in  the  counties  of  Kent, 
Hampshire,  Berkshire,  and  Sussex.  France,  in  various  places. 
Poland,  and  Ireland. 

Uses.  When  compact,  it  is  used  as  a  building  stone.  It 
furnishes  lime  for  cement  and  for  manure,  and  is  used  in  po- 
lishing metals  and  glass.  It  is  also  used  by  mechanics  to  mark 
out  their  work  ;  by  starchmakers  and  chemists  to  dry  precipi- 
tates on ;  and  in  medicine,  it  is  employed  as  an  absorbent. 

Species  2.     ARRAGONITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  yellowish  white 
greenish  gray,  and  pearl  gray;  occurs  crystallized,  in  the 
form  of  six-sided  prisms,  with  equal  sides ;  also  in  six-sided 
prisms,  of  which  the  two  opposite  lateral  planes  are  broad, 
the  four  others  being  narrow.  These  crystals  on  close  inspec- 
tion appear  to  have  longitudinal  joints  down  each  lateral  face, 
as  though  made  up  of  several  smaller  crystals,  closely  fitting 
each  other.  Sometimes  the  prisms  are  so  short  as  to  resemble 
octohedrons,  or  even  tables,  and  sometimes  it  forms  a  peculiar 
kind  of  twin  crystal,  or  two  crystals  are  seen  crossing  each 
other,  or  a  small  one  projecting  out  of  the  side  or  summit  of 
the  larger.  They  are  often  deeply  striated  ;  structure  coarsely 
fibrous ;  lustre,  shining  vitreous ;  translucent,  or  transparent ; 
scratches  marble. 

Fig.  73. 

Fig.  73,  a  crystal  formed  of  four  smaller  crys- 
tals aggregated,  so  as  to  leave  the  half  of  each  dis- 
tinct. 

*  Because  first  found  at  Arragon,  in  Spain. 

What  is  the  colour  of  arragonite  1 — Why  is  it  called  by  this  name  7— 
What  are  the  forms  of  its  crystals  ?         » 


70  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Thin  fragments  of  transparent  crys- 
tals decrepitate  in  the  flame  of  a  candle:  other  varieties  lose 
their  transparency  and  become  friable.  It  phosphoresces  on 
red  hot  iron,  and  is  soluble  in  nitric  and  muriatic  acid,  during 
which  process  the  carbonic  acid  is  disengaged. — Mohs. 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  lime  95.2965;  carbonate  of 
strontian  0.5090;  water  0.1544. — Stromeyer. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  crystalline  forms,  and  the 
general  aspect  of  arragonite,  will  distinguish  it  from  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  from  strontian.  It  is  also  harder  than  carbonate 
of  lirne,  and  does  not,  like  strontian,  tinge  flame  purple,  but 
burns  to  quicklime. 

The  phosphorescence  takes  place,  only  when  the  particles 
are  small,  and  at  the  instant  they  fall  on  the  hot  iron. 

In  a  fine  specimen  of  arragonite  before  rne,  from  Weir's 
cave,  Va.,  the  largest  crystals  appear  to  consist  of  bundles  of 
smaller  ones  adhering  together,  and  terminating  in  one,  two, 
or  three-sided  summits.  Among  the  smaller  ones,  some  are 
gradually  and  finely  acuminated,  while  others  are  abruptly 
truncated,  and  terminate  in  one,  or  two  principal  faces.  Some 
appear  to  be  cylindrical,  and  stand  in  aggregated  radiating 
masses,  the  points  only  appearing  distinct;  others  are  branch- 
ed, sending  forth  smaller  crystals  under  various  and  uncertain 
angles ;  the  whole  being  garnished  at  every  point  with  fine 
crystals,  standing  in  every  direction. 

The  branched  variety  is  often  found  in  the  cavities  of  iron 
ore,  and  hence  has  been  called  flos  ferri,  or  flmcers  of  iron. 

It  was  first  found  at  Arragon  in  Spain,  associated  with  gyp- 
sum. 

Localities.  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Bohemia,  Scotland, 
Iceland,  Siberia,  Chimborazo,  &c. 

U.  S.  Weir's  cave,  Va.,  Suckasunny  mine,  N.  J. 
Species  3.     MAGNESIAN  CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

This  species  has  several  varieties,  which  vary  considerably 
in  the  proportion  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

Variety  1.     DOLOMITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  often  with  a  tinge  of 
yellow,  or  gray ;  occurs  massive,  often  of  a  slaty  texture ; 
consists  of  fine  crystalline  grains,  which  are  lamellar ;  lustre 
glimmering;  translucent  on  the  edges;  when  struck,  or  thrown 

*  From  the  celebrated  Dolomieu. 

;» 

How  does  this  species  differ  from  carbonate  of  lime  ? — Where  is  it  found 
in  this  country  ? 


MINERALOGY.  71 

on  a  hot  iron,  mostly  emits  a  phosphorescent  light,  which  is 
visible  in  the  dark ;  softer  than  primitive  limestone,  which  it 
strongly  resembles;  sp.  gr.  2.85. 

Chemical  characters.  Effervesces  feebly  with  acids ;  under 
the  blow  pipe,  after  the  carbonic  acid  is  expelled,  it  phospho- 
resces with  exceeding  brightness,  turns  opake,  and  falls  into 
grains. 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  lime  52.0  ;  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia 40.5;  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  0.75. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  slow  effervescence  will  distin- 
guish it  from  primitive  limestone. 

It  is  found  in  veins,  in  primitive  rocks,  with  iron,  primitive 
limestone,  tremolile,  lead,  zinc,  quartz,  &c. 

LtOrcaMtits,     Pyrenees,  Saxony,  France,  Sweden,  &c. 

U.  S.  Near  the  city  of  New-York.  Washington,  Milford 
hills,  and  Litchfield,  Conn.  Great  Harrington,  Sheffield, 
Stockbridge,  Pittsfield,  Williamstown,  and  Adams,  Mass. 
Lock-port,  N.  Y.  Smithfield,  R.  I. 

Variety  \.      BITTER  SPAR.      RHOMB   SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  or  yellowish  white  ; 
occurs  in  obtuse  rhomboidal  crystals,  the  alternate  angles  of 
which  are  100°  15' and  73°  45';  structure  foliated:  lustre 
pearly  and  shining;  cleaves  into  rhomboids;  translucent; 
brittle;  very  easily  separable  into  rhombs,  at  the  natural 
joints,  by  a  blow. 

Chemical  characters.  Burns  to  quicklime  ;  effervesces  fee- 
bly with  acids. 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  lime  52;  carbonate  of  magne- 
sia 45  ;  oxide  of  iron  3. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distin- 
guish this  variety  from  calcareous  spar.  In  general,  its  slow 
and  feeble  effervescence  will  distinguish  them.  A  surer 
method  is  solution  in  sulphuric  acid,  which,  if  magnesia  be 
present,  will  be  precipitated  by  carbonate  of  potash,  or  soda; 
the  solution  will  also  be  bitter. 

It  is  found  in  chlorite,  steatite,  or  serpentine,  with  talc,  as- 
bestus,  &c. 

Localities.     Sweden,  Tyrol,  Siberia,  &c. 

U.  S.  Washington,  Milford  hills,  and  Litchfield,  Conn. 
Adams,  Middlefield,  Windsor,  Hinsdale,  Sheffield,  Pittsfield, 
and  Great  Harrington,  Mass. 

Is  dolomite  phosphorescent? — What  property  will  distinguish  it  from 
primitive  limestone? — What  are  the  colours  of  rhomb  spar? — With  what 
other  minerals  is  rhomb  spar  found  ** 


72  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  5.     MAGNESIAN   LIMESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellow  or  buff;  occurs  i» 
amorphous  masses ;  lustre  glimmering ;  tes.ture  somewha. 
sandy  5  translucent  on  the  edges. 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  lime  61.5  ;  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia 44.8;  insoluble  matter  1.6. —  Thomson. 

The  great  range  of  hills,  extending  from  Nottingham  to 
Sunderland,  in  England,  are  entirely  composed  of  it. 

The  lime  obtained  from  it  is  greatly  esteemed  for  cements, 
being  less  subject  to  decay,  owing  to  its  absorbing  less  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  atmosphere  than  the  lime  of  common 
limestone. — Phillips. 

When  magnesia  exists  in  considerable  quantity  in  a  soil,  it 
wholly  destroys  vegetation.  Large  tracts  in  France  are  bar- 
ren from  this  circumstance. 

A  flexible  variety  of  magnesian  limestone,  is  found  in  Sun- 
derland in  England.  It  is  slaty,  and  fusible.  This  quality 
is  lost  by  drying. — -Phillips. 

Variety  6.     FERRO-MAGNESIAX    CARBONATE    OF    LIME. 

PEARL-SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white  or  grayish,  yellowish, 
or  reddish  white  ;  occurs  in  laminated  masses,  and  in  obtuse 
rhomboids,  with  curved  faces  :  sometimes  only  the  thin  edges 
or  angles  of  the  crystal  are  curved,  or  turned  up;  lustre 
pearly  ;  structure  foliated  :  crystals  often  placed  partly  over 
each  other,  so  as  to  give  the  mass  a  scaly  appearance ;  also,  it 
occurs  of  a  fibrous  texture;  translucent;  sp.  gr.  2.5. 

Fig.  74.  Fig.75.  p^-s.    74  and    75,    show-  the 

common     appearance    of    these 
crystals.       They    are    irregular 
rhomboids,     having   their    faces 
curved,  or  their  angles  contorted, 
in  various  directions. 
Chemical  characters.     Before  the  blow  pipe,  it  decrepitates 
with  violence,  and  turns  dark  gray,  or  brown ;  with  borax  it 
fuses  with  ebullition,  into  a  yellowish  green  enamel ;  soluble 
slowly,  and  with  little  effervescence  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Lime  27.97  ;  magnesia  21.14;  carbonic  acid 
44.6;  oxide  of  iron  3.4;  of  manganese  1.5 — Heisinger. 
Distinctive  characters.     Its  peculiar  contorted  crystalliza- 

What  effect  does  magnesian  limestone  have  on  vegetation  1 — Of  what  is 
pearl-spar  a  variety? — What  is  there  peculiar  in  its  crystals? — What  are 
its  chemical  characters? — What  are  its  distinctive  characters  ? 


MINERALOGY.  73 

tion,  with  its  slow  effervescence,  will  distinguish  it  from  ilnmb- 
spar,  and  other  carbonates,  sparry  iron  ore  is  darker  and 
heavier. 

Phillips  thinks  it  probable  that  pearl-spar  passes  into  sparry 
iron  ore. 

Pearl-spar  is  found  in  metallic  mines,  with  quartz,  limestone, 
iron  ore,  zinc,  lead,  &c. 

Localities.     Derbyshire,  Devonshire,  Cornwall. 

U.  S.  Near  Lancaster.  Penn.  Leicester,  on  the  Genesee. 
Clinton,  and  Bethlehem,  N.  Y.  Leverett,  and  Charlestown, 
Mass. 

Species  4.     TABULAR  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  often  tinged 
red,  green,  or  yellow ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  thin 
laminae ;  structure  imperfectly  foliated ;  translucent,  or  opake; 
phosphorescent  when  scratched ;  cleaves  into  prismatic  pieces 5 
fracture  splintery ;  yields  to  the  knife,  and  is  sometimes  fria- 
ble: sp.  gr.  2.8. 

Chemical  characters.  In  nitric  acid,  a  few  bubbles  escape, 
and  the  fragment  falls  into  powder.  Fusible  with  ebullition 
into  a  white  glass. 

Composition.     Silex  50  ;  lime  45 ;  water  5. — Klaproth. 

It  is  a  rare  mineral,  and  has  been  found  only  in  Ceylon, 
and  two  or  three  other  localities. 

Species  5.     PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. 

This  species  embraces  several  varieties,  which  vary  con- 
siderably in  their  external  characters,  and  chemical  composi- 
tion. 

Variety  1.     APATITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white, 
greenish  yellow,  blue,  bluish  green,  and  reddish,  colours  pale  ; 
occurs  in  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  one  or  more  planes, 
or  by  a  six-sided  pyramid,  variously  truncated  ;  prisms  short ; 
cross  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  virteous ;  translucent;  often 
longitudinally  striated ;  yields  to  the  knife. 

*  From   the   Greek,  signifying  to  deceive,  because  it  resembles  other 
minerals. 


What  are  the  colours  of  tabular  spar? — Is  this  a  common  or  a  rare 
mineral? — What  are  the  colours  of  apatite-?— Why  is  it  called  by  this 
name? 

7 


. 


Fig.  76. 


INTRODUCTION  TO 

Pig.  77. 


Fig.  76,  the  primary  form,  a  short  six-sided  prism. 

Fig.  77,  a  six-sided  prism,  terminated  by  six-sided  pyramids. 

Fig.  78,  the  same,  with  the  lateral  edges  and  summits  trun- 
cated. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  ;  dissolves  slowly  and  with- 
out effervescence,  in  nitric  acid ;  or  effervesces  slightly  from 
foreign  matter ;  phorphoresces  on  hot  iron. 

Composition.     Lime  55  ;  phosphoric  acid  45. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  beryl,  and  emerald, 
but  wants  their  hardness,  and  is  soluble  in  acids.  From  car- 
bonate of  lime  it  differs,  by  its  slight  effervescence :  fluate  of 
lime  is  fusible. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  with  garnets,  fluor,  tin,  iron, 
and  quartz. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Moravia,  Spain,  several 
parts  of  England,  &c. 

U.  S.  Germantown,  and  Hamilton,  Penn.  At  the  former 
place  it  is  in  grass-green  crystals.  Several  places  in  New 
Jersey.  Near  Wilmington,  Del.  Near  Crown  Point,  colour, 
clove  brown.  Near  New-York,  colour,  apple  green ;  and 
West  Farms,  N.  Y.  Milford  hills,  (pale  green,)  Conn.  Top- 
sham,  (pale  green,)  Maine.  Also,  in  small  yellowish  green 
crystals  imbedded  in  granite,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  Near  Wil- 
mington, Del.  Near  Philadelphia,  New- York,  and  New- 
Haven.  Also,  in  iron  pyrites,  near  Green  Pond,  Morris 
Co.  N.  Y.,  and  at  Anthony's  Nose,  in  the  Highlands,  N.  Y. 

Variety  2.     ASPARAGUS  STONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  asparagus  green,  greenish 
white,  white  and  transparent ;  occurs  in  crystals  only  ;  form, 
six-sided  prisms,  with  six-sided  pyramidal  terminations;  planes 
sometimes  striated  longitudinally;  angles  subject  to  trunca- 
tion :  does  not  phosphoresce. 

Chemical  characters.  Dissolves  in  nitrous  acid  without 
effervescence. 

What  are  its  crystalline  form*?— How  is  it  distinguished  from  emerald 
and  beryl  1 


MINERALOGY. 


75 


Composition.  Lime  54.28 ;  phosphoric  acid  45  72. — 
Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  has  been  confounded  with  apa- 
tite, but  differs  from  it  in  colour;  in  the  general  smooth  sur- 
face of  its  planes ;  in  its  acuter  terminations ;  in  its  non- 
phosphoresence  ;  and  in  dissolving  in  acids  without  efferves- 
cence.— Jameson. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks. 

Localities.  Granada,  in  Spain,  in  abundance ;  Vesuvius, 
Norway,  and  near  Havre,  in  France. 

U.  S.  Germantown,  Penn.  Highlands,  at  Anthony's  Nose. 
Near  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  the  island  of  New- York,  N.  Y. 
Morris  county,  N.  J. 

Species  6.     FLUATE  OF  LIME.     FLUOR.* 

This  species  is  found  crystallized,  nodular,  compact,  and 
earthy.      It  therefore  comprehends  several  varieties,  of  which 
the  crystallized  is  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  important. 
Variety  1.     CRYSTALLIZED  FLUATE    OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  purple,  red,  green,  yellow, 
gray,  blue,  white,  and  perfectly  limpid  and  transparent ;  occurs 
in  crystals;  forms,  the  octohedron,  with  its  varieties,  the  cube 
and  rhomboidal  dodecahedrons,  variously  truncated ;  structure 
lamellar  or  foliated ;  cleaves  into  the  form  of  the  octohedron, 
tetrahedron,  and  rhomboid ;  lustre,  shining  vitreous ;  crystals 
generally  smooth  ;  yields  easily  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  3.  10. 
Fig.  79.  'Fig.  80.  Fig.  81.  Fig.  82. 


Fig.  79,  the  primary  octohedron. 

Fig.  80,  the  cube,  a  form  under  which  it  most  frequently 
occurs. 

Fig.  81,  the  dodecahedron,  with  rhombic  faces. 
Fig.  82,  the  cube,  with  bevelled  edges. 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  83,  the  cube,  with  each  solid  angle 
bevelled,  or  replaced  with  six  planes. 


*  From  the  Latin^uo  to  flow,  because  it  is  used  as  a  flux. 

How  does  asparagus  stone  differ  from  apatite  ? — What  are  these  minerals 
composed  of? — What  are  the  colours  of  fluate  of  lime? — What  are  the 
forms  of  its  crystals  ? 


76  INTRODUCTION  TO 

A  great  variety  of  other  forms  are  enumerated.  Mr.  Phil- 
lips states  that  his  collection  presents  upwards  of  seventy  va- 
rieties of  form.  The  same  author  has  given  a  figure  of  one 
crystal,  bounded  by  fifty-four  planes,  and  another  in  his  pos- 
session, from  Devonshire,  bounded  by  three  hundred  and 
twenty-two  planes. 

This  mineral  is  rendered  very  interesting  by  the  great  va- 
riety and  beauty  of  its  colours,  and  the  peculiarly  distinc' 
forms  in  which  its  crystals  are  often  found. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ebullition  iritoanopake 
globule;  with  borax  into  a  transparent  glass.  In  powder, 
with  warm  sulphuric  acid,  emits  fluoric  acid  gas,  which  is 
employed  in  etching  on  glass;  phosphorescent  on  hot  iron. 

Composition.     Lime  72. 14;  fluoric  acid  27.86. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  rich  colours  and  peculiar  pro- 
perty of  corroding  glass  will  distinguish  it  from  other  minerals ; 
from  the  gems  it  is  readily  known,  by  its  want  of  hardness. 

It  is  found  mostly  in  metallic  veins  which  traverse  primitive 
rocks. 

Localities.  Mont  Blanc,  St.  Gothard,  Saxony,  Germany. 
Cornwall  and  Derbyshire,  abundant.  In  the  tin  mine,  St. 
Agnes,  Cornwall,  are  found  the  most  splendid  varieties ;  also 
in  the  lead  mines  of  Derbyshire  fine  specimens  occur. 

U.  S.  Shenandoah  county,  and  at  Shephardstown,  Va.  Pe- 
ter's Creek,  17  miles  from  Shawn  eetovvn,  Fork  of  Grand  Pierre 
Creek,  27  miles  from  the  same  place,  Illinois.  West  side  of 
the  Blue  Ridge,  Md.  Smith  county,  Ten.  Near  Franklin 
Furnace,  and  near  Hamburgh,  N.  J.  Near  Saratoga  Springs, 
and  at  Amity,  N.  Y.  At  Middletown,  and  Huntington,  Conn 
At  Thetford,  Vt.  Southampton  lead  mine,  Mass.  White 
Mountains,  N.  H. 

Variety  1.     NODULAR  FLUATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blue,  brown,  purple,  gray, 
reddish,  and  yellow,  variously  intermixed  with  white,  and 
transparent;  it  is  the  result  of  imperfect  crystallizations;  the 
colours  run  in  zones  or  bands,  often  quite  distinct,  or  are  va- 
riously shaded,  or  intermingled  with  each  other,  forming  tints 
of  a  g^reat  variety  of  colours.  Some  parts  of  a  specimen  will 
be  transparent,  others  translucent,  or  even  opake. 

This  variety  comes  from  Derbyshire,  and   is  commonly 

What  is  the  composition  of  fluor  spar  ?— What  acid  is  obtained  from 
fluor,  and  what  are  its  peculiar  properties  1 


MINERALOGY.  77 

known  by  the  name  of  Derbyshire  spar.  It  is  called  blue  John 
by  the  miners,  and  is  found  in  veins  or  detached  masses,  from 
three  inches  to  a  foot  in  thickness. 

Uses.  It  is  formed  into  vases,  obelisks,  candlesticks,  &c. 
for  ornamental  purposes.  It  bears  a  high  polish,  and  its 
great  variety  of  rich  colours  renders  it  remarkably  beautiful, 
and  in  great  request. 

Variety  2.     CHLOROPHANE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  violet ;  structure  im- 
perfectly lamellar ;  does  not  much  resemble  the  other  varie- 
ties ;  translucent. 

It  is  curious  on  account  of  its  phosphorescence.  When 
placed  on  hot  iron,  it  does  not  fly,  but  gives  out  the  most  beau- 
tiful emerald  green  light.  The  experiment  may  be  made  on 
a  hot  shovel  carried  into  the  dark. 

Localities.     Cornwall  and  Siberia. 

U.  S.  New  Stratford,  Ct.  When  placed  on  a  hot  iron  in 
a  dark  room,  it  emits  a  very  pure  emerald  green  light ;  masses 
even  one  inch  in  diameter,  become  illuminated  in  a  few  sec- 
onds, and  continue  distinctly  luminous  when  removed  to  a 
room  lighted  by  candles,  or  when  viewed  in  weak  day  light. 
— Silliman. 

Species  7.     SULPHATE  OF  LIME. 

The  varieties  of  this  species  differ  widely  in  their  external 
characters,  but  are  composed  of  nearly  the  same  proportions 
of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid. 

It  occurs  crystallized,  fibrous,  granular,  earthy,  and  com 
pact. 
Variety  1.   CRYSTALLIZED  SULPHATE  OF  LIME.    SELENITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  either  pure,  or  with 
shades  of  yellow,  violet,  brown,  or  red  ;  occurs  in  foliated 
masses,  and  in  regular  crystals;  form  of  the  foliated,  oblique 
hexahedral  tables,  each  of  the  lateral  faces  of  which  is  bev- 
elled ;  or  in  flat  crystals,  which  are  oblique  parallelepipeds ; 
form  of  the  regular  crystals,  hexahedral  and  octohedral  prisms, 
with  oblique  terminations;  crystals  often  united,  somewhat  in 
the  stellular  form,  or  the  smaller  crystals  are  attached  oblique- 
ly to  the  larger  ones;  structure  foliated:  cleavage  very  per- 

*  From  its  green  light,  when  heated. 

What  is  the  common  name  of  fluor? — What  are  the  uses  of  this  mine- 
ral ? — Whence  does  chlorophane  derive  its  name  ? — What  curious  property 
does  it  possess  ?  • 

7* 


78  INTRODUCTION  TO 

feet  in  one  direction ;  lustre,  shining,  pearly ;  transparent  or 
translucent;  soft;  yields  to  the  nail;  inelastic:  sp.  gr.  2.310. 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  white  and  opake,  swells,  and 
finally,  in  small  fragments,  melts  into  a  white  enamel ;  does 
not  effervesce  with  acids,  nor  burn  to  lime. 

Composition.  Lime  32;  sulphuric  acid  46;  water  22. — 
Bergman. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  mica  and  talc;  but 
mica  is  elastic,  does  not  instantly  turn  opake  on  being  heated, 
and  is  harder  than  selenite  ;  talc  is  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and 
of  a  greenish  tinge. 

The  massive  selenite  sometimes  appears  in  broad,  shining, 
transparent  laminae,  a  foot  or  more  long,  and  several  inches 
wide,  without  the  least  appearance  of  distinct  crystals,  but  re- 
sembling plates  of  mica. 

Beautiful  specimens  of  this  kind  are  occasionally  found 
among  the  gypsum  from  Nova  Scotia. 

Selenite  often  occurs  in  the  form  of  lenticular  crystals. 
These  sometimes  occur  disseminated  in  the  compact,  or  gran- 
ular gypsum,  or  are  collected  into  groups  in  the  form  of  roses, 
stars,  &c. 

Variety  2.     FIBROUS  GYPSUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  reddish,  and 
yellowish  ;  occurs  in  extremely  fine,  delicate,  and  nearly  sep- 
arate fibres,  of  a  shining  silky  lustre,  and  either  straight,  or 
gently  curved ;  sometimes  it  is  nearly  compact,  taking  the 
form  of  a  concretion. 

This  beautiful  variety  is  polished  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Variety  3.     GRANULAR   GYPSUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  and  red- 
dish ;  occurs  in  masses  composed  of  small  laminated  crystals, 
which  present  shining  faces,  either  straight  or  curved;  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges ;  very  soft ;  yields  to  the  nail. 

This  is  a  very  common  variety,  and  appears  to  be  interme- 
diate between  selenite  and  compact  gypsum. 

Variety  4.     COMPACT  GYPSUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  reddish,  or  yellowish, 
often  running  in  veins,  or  clouds;  occurs  massive;  fracture 
compact;  lustre  glimmering;  translucent,  or  opake;  easily 
cut  with  a  knife;  the  white  often  resembles  spermaceti. 

What  is  the  composition  of  sulphate  of  lime? — In  what  forms  does  it 
occur  ? — What  are  its  chemical  and  d.stinctive  characters  ? — What  are  the 
prevailing  colours  of  this  mineral  7 


MINERALOGY.  79 

This  variety  forms  the  gypseous  alabaster  of  which  cups, 
vases,  candlesticks,  and  other  ornaments  are  made  ;  some  spe- 
cimens after  being  polished,  are  translucent,  and  at  a  few  feet 
distance  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  spermaceti.  Beau- 
tiful ornaments  of  this  mineral,  and  in  great  variety,  come 
from  Italy.  A  manufactory  of  the  same  kind  is  also  estab- 
lished at  Derby,  England. 

The  beautiful  white  translucent  alabaster,  of  which  the  Ital- 
ian ornaments  now  so  common  in  this  country,  are  made 
comes  from  Castelino,  in  Tuscany,  35  miles  from  Leghorn. 
The  most  perfect  is  found  about  200  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  The  yellowish  variegated  kind  called  alabastro 
agatato,  or  agate  alabaster,  is  found  at  Sienna,  from  20  to  30 
feet  below  the  surface. 

The  bluish  variety  comes  from  Guercieto,  and  is  remarka- 
bly beautiful,  being  elegantly  variegated  with  blue,  purple,  and 
red. 

The  principal  manufactory  of  these  articles  is  at  Volterra, 
36  miles  from  Leghorn,  where  about  5,000  persons  live  by 
this  kind  of  labour,  and  from  whence  these  ornaments  are 
transported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

This  information  we  obtain  from  one  of  the  proprietors  of 
the  manufactory. 

This  kind  of  alabaster  may  be  readily  known  from  the  cal- 
careous kind,  by  its  softness  and  want  of  effervescence  with 
acids. 

Variety  5.     PLASTER  OF  PARIS. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish,  or  brownish  5  oc- 
curs in  masses,  composed  of  small  grains,  sometimes  of  a  crys- 
talline appearance,  and  sometimes  earthy;  fracture  earthy ; 
dull ;  soft ;  easily  broken  ;  yields  to  the  nail. 

Chemical  characters.  Effervesces  slightly  with  acids,  owing 
to  its  containing  a  portion  of  lime.  In  other  respects  its 
chemical  characters  do  not  differ  from  the  other  varieties. 

Composition.  That  of  Montrnatre,  near  Paris,  contains 
about  17  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  a  small  portion 
of  the  oxide  of  iron. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  the  name  commonly  used  in  commerce 
for  the  whole  species,  probably  from  the  circumstance  of  its 
having  been  first  exported  from  the  vicinity  of  Paris. 

What  use  is  made  of  the  compact  variety? — Under  what  name  is  this 
variety  known?— How  may  this  alabaster  he  known  from  the  calcareous 
kind  ? — What  is  the  appearance  of  plaster  of  Paris  ? — Why  is  this  mineral 
called  plaster  of  Paris  1 


bT)  INTRODUCTION  TO 

This  variety  occurs  in  great  abundance  at  Montmatre.  m,-ar 
Paris,  and  is  said  to  produce  the  best  plaster  known  in  com- 
merce. 

Sulphate  of  lime  belongs  to  transition  and  secondary  forma- 
lions.  Its  occurrence  as  a  primitive  rock  has  also  been  as- 
serted. But  Saussure,  who  observed  gypsum  in  several  places 
on  the  Alps,  mixed  with  layers  of  mica,  has  notwithstanding 
recorded  his  opinion  against  its  primitive  origin.  The  gypsum 
of  Nova  Scotia,  of  which  vast  quantities  are  employed  for 
manure  and  other  purposes,  presents,  it  is  believed,  no  organic 
remains.  Having  examined  great  quantities  of  this  gypsum, 
with  a  view  to  determine  its  geological  character,  and  having 
interested  the  workmen,  where  it  is  broken  and  ground,  to  ob- 
serve any  organic  remains  that  might  occur,  the  writer  has 
never  been  able  to  detect  a  single  shell,  or  other  organized 
substance  in  it. 

The  secondary  gypsum  of  Germany,  it  is  believed,  some- 
times contains  organic  remains. 

That  of  Montmatre  contains  vast  quantities  of  shells,  skele- 
tons of  birds,  quadrupeds,  and  even  vegetable  substances. — 
Cuvier.  Pinkerton. 

Uses.  Gypsum  is  ground  and  spread  on  certain  soils  as  a 
manure.  (For  information  on  this  subject,  see  Davy's  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry.) 

It  is  employed  when  calcined,  in  ornamenting  rooms  in  stuc- 
co, in  taking  the  impressions  of  medals,  in  casting  statues  and 
busts,  &c.  and  when  mixed  with  lime,  it  is  used  in  plastering 
the  walls  of  houses. 

Casts,  busts,  &c.  of  plaster,  are  easily  polished  when  dry, 
by  rubbing  the  surface  with  talc. 

Remark.  Broken  articles  of  plaster  are  mended  by  first 
wetting  the  surfaces  to  be  joined,  then  mixing  the  calcined 
plaster  with  gum  water,  and  applying  it  before  it  hardens. 

Localities.  Hungary,  Italy,  Bohemia,  England,  and  most 
other  countries.  Nova  Scotia,  in  extensive  quarries. 

U.  S.  Niagara,  near  the  Falls,  and  at  the  foot  of  Goat 
Island.  Onondaga  and  Madison  counties,  near  Cayuga  Lake, 
(at  the  three  last  named  places  it  is  quarried,)  Manlius,  Lock- 
port,  and  in  several  other  places,  N.  Y.  Martha's  Vineyard, 
and  Milton,  Mass.  Saltville,  on  Holsteiri  river,  (quarried,) 


Why  does  it  sometimes  effervesce  with  acids? — What  are  the  principal 
uses  of  plaster  of  Paris  ? — Is  this  mineral  common  in  this  country  ? 


MINERALOGY.  81 

near  Preston's  salt  works,  and  at  the  head  waters  of  Staunton 
river,  Va.  St.  Mary's  county,  on  the  Patuxet,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, near  Fort  Washington,  and  near  Baltimore,  Md.  Po- 
land, Trumbull  Co.  Ohio,  in  oblique  parallelepipeds,  very 
perfect  and  beautiful.  It  is  also  found  in  many  other  places 
in  the  United  States  in  small  quantities. 

Species  8.  ANHYDROUS*  GYPSUM. 

This  species    occurs  crystallized,    granular,    fibrous,   and 
compact.      It  therefore  affords  several  varieties. 
Variety  1.     MURIACITE. t 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  violet,  bluish,  or  red- 
dish; occurs  crystallized  in  rectangular  prisms,  sometimes 
differing  little  from  a  cube,  and  sometimes  so  short  as  to  be- 
come tabular  5  structure  lamellar,  with  joints  parallel  to  the 
planes  of  the  prism;  lustre  shining,  pearly;  transparent  or 
translucent;  soft;  yields  to  the  nail. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  is  reduced  without 
exfoliation  to  a  white  friable  enamel ;  does  not  effervesce  with 
acids. 

Composition.     Lime  40 ;  sulphuric  acid  60. —  Vauquelin. 

Lime  41.75;  sulphuric  acid  55;  muriate  of  soda  1. — 
Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  does  riot,  like  the  sulphate  of 
lime,  exfoliate  and  melt  into  a  hard  enamel,  but  under  the 
blow  pipe  is  converted  into  a  friable  enamel. 

Localities.     Switzerland,  and  Tyrol. 

U.  S.  Lockport,  N.  Y. 

Variety  2.    GRANULAR  ANHYDRITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  greenish  gray, 
bluish  or  reddish;  occurs  in  concretions;  structure  granular, 
or  confusedly  foliated,  sometimes  bladed,  or  contorted  lustre 
shining,  pearly  ;  translucent. 

It  often  contains  a  little  muriate  of  soda. 

Variety  3.     FIBROUS  ANHYDRITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  greenish  gray,  blu- 
ish or  reddish  ;  occurs  in  masses  composed  of  fibres,  either 
straight  and  parallel,  or  diverging;  translucent  on  the  edges ; 
lustre  shining,  pearly. 

*  Anhydrous,  without  water,  because  it  contains  no  water  of  crystalli- 
zation, 
t  Muriacite,  because  it  sometimes  contains  muriatic  acid. 

Whence  come  the  words  anhydrous  and  muriacite? — What  are  the  pre- 
vailing colours  of  muriacite? — Wljatis  the  composition  of  this  species  ?— 
What  are  its  varieties? 


&  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  4.     COMPACT  ANHYDRITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  blue,  and  red; 
occurs  massive,  and  sometimes  contorted ;  fracture  splintery, 
passing  into  flat  conchoidal ;  translucent  on  the  edges ; 
scratches  calcareous  spar. 

Composition.  Lime  42;  sulphuric  acid  56.50 ;  muriate  of 
soda  0.25. — Klaproth. 

Localities.     It  is  found  in  the  salt  mines  of  Poland. 

Variety  5.     siLicious  ANHYDRITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  veined  with 
bluish  gray;  occurs  in  distinct  massive  concretions;  struc- 
ture laminated;  translucent  on  the  edges ;  lustre,  splendent; 
soft;  brittle. 

Composition.   It  contains  8  per  cent  ofsilex.  —  Vauquel'm. 

It  is  found  with  limestone  at  Vulpino,  in  Italy. 

It  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  employed  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. 

Species  9.    NITRATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  or  gray- 
ish white ;  occurs  in  fibrous  efflorescences ;  often  united  in  the 
form  of  silken  tufts,  also  in  delicate  needles,  and  in  a  state  oi 
powder ;  tastes  bitter  and  disagreeable. 

Chemical  characters.  On  burning  coals  it  slowly  melts 
away,  and  emits  slight  detonations ;  soluble  in  water,  and  very 
deliquescent. 

Composition.  Lime  32 ;  nitric  acid  57.44;  water  10.57. 
— Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  bitter  taste,  and  its  ready  deli 
quescence  will  distinguish  it  from  nitrate  of  potash. 

It  is  generally  found  with  the  nitrate  of  potash,  and  occurs 
about  old  walls,  in  caverns,  and  on  calcareous  rocks  among 
vegetable  remains. 

Localities.  U.  S.  It  is  abundant  in  the  caverns  of  Ken- 
tucky. 

Species  10.     SILICIOUS  BORATE  OF  LIME.    DATIIOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish  or  greenish  white; 
occurs  massive  and  crystallized ;  form,  the  rhombic  prism, 
with  the  lateral  edges,  and  solid  angles,  variously  truncated ; 
sometimes  the  two  opposite  angles,  and  sometimes  all  the  an- 
gles are  truncated,  or  bevelled ;  the  two  opposite  angles  are 

Of  what  is  nitrate  of  lime  composed] — What  are  its  chemical  and  dis- 
tinctive characters  2 


MINERALOGY.  83 

often  replaced  by  three  planes,  forming  a  prism  of  ten  sides: 
Iracture  imperfectly  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining,  between  vit- 
reous and  resinous ;  translucent ;  yields  to  the  knife :  sp.  gr. 
about  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Intumesces  into  a  white  mass,  and 
then  melts  into  a  globule  of  a  pale  rose  colour;  forms  a  jelly 
with  acids ;  in  the  flame  of  a  candle,  turns  white,  opake,  and 
becomes  friable. 

Composition.  Lime  84;  boracic  acid  21.67 ;  silex  37.66; 
water  55. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  sometimes  resembles  prehnite; 
but  is  not  electric  by  heat,  and  its  hardness  is  sensibly  infe- 
rior.— Cleveland. 

Localities.  Paterson,  N.  J.,  in  well  defined  crystals.  Mid- 
dlefield  and  Hampden,  Conn. 

Variety.     BOTRYOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  grayish,  and  red  in 
concentric  circles ;  externally  yellowish  gray;  occurs  in  bo- 
tryoidal  masses,  and  in  mamillary  concretions,  formed  of  con- 
centric layers;  texture  fibrous  or  earthy:  sp.  gr.  2.8. 

Composition.  Lime  39.5;  silex  36;  boracic  acid  13.5; 
water  6.5;  oxide  of  iron  1. — Klaproth. 

This  species  is  found  at  Arendal,  in  Norway. 

U.  S.  Naar  Passaic  Falls,  N.  J.  It  was  discovered  by 
T.  Pierce,  Esq.,  and  is  well  characterized. 

Species  11.     ARSENIATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  grayish  white; 
surface  often  tinned  red,  or  violet  by  arseniate  of  cobalt;  oc- 
curs in  minute  fibres,  or  in  acicular  crystals,  commonly  ag- 
gregated into  botryoidal  masses;  lustre  silky,  or  dull :  sp.  gr. 
2.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Evaporates  with  heat  in  dense  white 
vapour,  with  the  odour  of  arsenic,  leaving  the  lime.  Soluble 
in  nitric  acid  without  effervescence. 

Composition.  Lime  25  ;  arsenic  acid  50.54;  water  24.46. 
— Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  chemical  characters  will  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles. 

Localities.  Andrensburg  in  the  Hartz.  Near  Furstem- 
burg,  in  Germany,  with  cobalt  and  sulphate  of  lime. 

*  From  the  Greek,  resembling  grapes. 

What  is  the  composition  of  silicious  horate  of  lime  ? — Why  is  one  of  its 
varieties  called  botryolite?— What  is  the  composition  of  arseniate  of  Lime ? 
-Is  it  a  common  mineral  ?  *  .  •  •  ...... 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Species  12.     HAIDINGERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  \viiite,  streak  white;  primi- 
tive form,  the  right  rhombic  prisms,  the  secondary  having  the 
lateral  and  terminal  edges  replaced  by  single  planes  ;  cleavage 
perfect  in  the  direction  of  the  primitive  planes;  lustre  vitre 
ous:  translucent,  and  in  thin  places  transparent;  doubly  re- 
fractive in  certain  directions:  sp.  gr.  2.84. 

Composition.  Arseniate  of  lime  85.68;  water  14.31. — 
Turner. 

Locality.  Unknown,  the  analysis  being  of  a  specimen  in 
the  cabinet  of  Mr.  Ferguson  of  Raith.  The  mineral  forms 
crystalline  coats  on  a  ferruginous  quartz. 

GENUS  ii. — ALUMINE. 

This  earth  derives  its  name  from  alum,  of  which  it  is  the 
base.  It  never  occurs  pure,  but  may  be  obtained  so  by 
chemical  means,  when  it  is  of  a  clear  white.  It  occurs  very 
universally  in  argillaceous  soils,  and  enters  into  .the  composi- 
tion of  several  gems,  as  the  sapphire  and  ruby.  In  the  spe- 
cies belonging  to  this  genus,  it  is  combined  with  acids,  and 
forms  the  basis  of  several  salts. 

Species  1.     SUBSULPIIATE  OF  ALUMINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  yellowish  white; 
occurs  massive  in  small  round  or  reniform  pieces;  translucent, 
or  opake;  fracture  earthy  ;  yields  to  the  nail :  adheres  to  the 
tongue ;  light. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  loses  more  than  half 
its  weight  by  the  heat. 

Composition.  Alumine  30.2;  sulphuric  acid  23.4:  water 
46. 4. — Stromcyer. 

Localities.     Newhaven,  Sussex,  Eng.     Halle,  in  Saxony. 

Variety  1.     SILICIOUS  SUBSULPHATE  OF  ALUMINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  milk  and  snow 
white;  occurs  of  the  consistence  of  hog's  lard;  smooth  to  the 
touch  :  translucent,  except  in  patches,  where  it  is  opake  and 
granular ;  on  exposure  to  the  air,  it  dries  and  splits  into 
masses  like  starch,  some  of  which  effervesce  on  the  surface, 
while  others  are  translucent,  and  resemble  the  finest  pieces  o 
gum  arabic. — Phillips. 

Chemical  characters.  By  ignition  it  loses  90  percent,  of 
its  weight. 

•Whence  doe"  the  e.ar.th  alu  mine  derive  .its  name? — What  is  the  compo- 
sition of  eubsulphate  of  alumine  1 . 


MINERALOGY.  35 

Composition.  Alumine  6.5  ;  sulphuric  aci-l  3.0 ;  water  88  • 
?ilex  2.4. — Henry. 

Localities.  This  singular  mineral  was  found  in  the.  old 
workings  of  a  coal  mine,  near  Oidham,  in  Lancashire. 

Species  2.     SUBPHOSPHATE  OF  ALUMINE. 

External  characters.  Colours  white,  yellowish  white, 
greenish  or  bluish;  occurs  in  minute  crystals  in  the  form  of 
rhombic  prisms,  with  dihedral  terminations  ;  these  are  grouped 
or  collected  into  hemispherical  or  globular  concretions  ;  some- 
times appearing  like  down,  but  more  commonly  radiating  from 
a  centre,  with  a  pearly  or  silken  lustre.  It  is  often  attached 
to  other  minerals,  in  distinct,  round,  or  stellular  spots,,  pre- 
senting, when  the  mineral  is  of  a  different  colour,  a  singular 
and  beautiful  nppearance;  translucent. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  white  and 
opake,  and  loses  its  crystalline  form  ;  gives  a  greenish  tinge 
to  the  flame  :  Aiken  says,  that  with  sulphuric  acid  it  corrodes 
glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  35.35;  phosphoric  acid  33. 40 5. 
fluoric  acid  2.06;  lime  0.50;  water  26.90;  oxides  of  iron 
and  manganese  1.25. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  zeolite,  but  this  is 
fusible.  Its  property  of  corroding  glass  is  not  constant,  but 
may  sometimes  be  seen  by  placing  a  little  of  it  in  powder  with 
sulphuric  acid  on  a  niece  of  glass  and  warming  it  over  a  lamp. 

Localities.  Bar  Datable,  in  Devonshire;  Cornwall;  New- 
Castle,  and  other  places  in  England.  Brazil,  Bohemia,  and 
the  Hebrides.  First  discovered  at  B.irnstable,  by  Dr.  Wavel. 

A  mineral  found  at  Richmond,  in  Berkshire  county.  Mass. 
is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  present  species.  It  occurs  sta- 
lactical,  or  in  concretions  composed  of  minute  radiating  fibres: 
colour  greenish  or  grayish  white;  scratches  carbonate  of 
lime.  Infusible. 

Species  3.      GIBBSITE. 

External  characters.  Colour  white,  or  greenish,  or  gray- 
ish white  ;  occurs  in  stalactical,  or  tuberous  masses ;  structure, 
fibrous,  radiating  from  the  centre ;  transparent ;  easily  reduced 
to  powder :  sp.  gr.  2.4. ' 

Chemical  character.  Whitens  before  the  blow  pipe,  but  is 
infusible. 

Composition.     Alumine  64.8  ;  water  34.7. — Torrcy. 

What  are  the  colours,  chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of  eubphoa* 
phatfc  of  aiunuiio  ? 
8 


86  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Locality.  Richmond,  Mass.,  with  brown  hematite,  a  spe- 
cimen was  found  at  Lenox,  Mass. 

GENUS  in. — MAGNESIA. 

Like  the  other  earths,  magnesia,  when  pure,  is  perfectly 
white.  That  sold  by  apothecaries  is  obtained  by  the  decom- 
position of  the  sulphate  of  magnesia.  It  is  also  found  native, 
in  small  quantities.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  minerals.  It  forms  the  basis  of  several 
native  salts,  being  found  combined  with  the  carbonic,  sulphu- 
ric, and  boracic  acids. 

Species  1.     CARBONATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

Of  this  species  there  are  four  varieties,  viz.  crystallized, 
compact,  earthy,  and  pulverulent. 

Variety  1.     CRYSTALLIZED  CARBONATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white;  occurs  in  delicate 
acicular  crystals,  radiating,  or  diverging,  and  possessing  the 
lustre  of  satin ;  also  in  flesh-coloured  crusts,  not  more  than 
two  lines  thick,  having  a  polished,  or  sparrv  structure.  It  is 
totally  soluble  in  sulphuric  acid. — Cleveland. 

Localities.  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  Discovered  by  James 
Pierce,  Esq.  in  veins,  or  cavities,  in  magnesite  and  steatite. 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  CARBONATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  or  yellowish  ;  occurs 
amorphous,  tuberous,  and  spongiform  ;  fracture,  dull,  splin- 
tery, and  flat  conc.hoidal ;  nearly  opake ;  yields  to  the  nail 
externally;  internally  harder  than  calcareous  spar;  adheres 
to  the  tongue;  absorbs  from  9  to  10  per  cent,  of  water,  and 
becomes  translucent  on  the  edges. 

Chemical  characters.  Soluble  with  effervescence,  but 
slowly,  in  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids;  infusible,  but  hard- 
ens under  the  blow  pipe  so  as  to  scratch  glass. — Aikin. 

Composition.  Magnesia  58  :  carbonic  acid  49 :  water  3. 
— Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  bitter  solution  which  it  forms 
when  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  not  burning  to  quick- 
lime, will  distinguish  it  from  chalk,  and  other  forms  of  car- 
bonate of  lime.  It  does  not,  like  clay,  become  plastic  with 
water. 

How  is  the  earth  magnesia  obtained  ? — With  what  acids  is  this  earth 
found  combined?— Where  has  crystallized  carbonate  of  magnesia  been 
found?— What  are  the  chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of  this  species  ? 

.  - 


MINERALOGY.  87 

Localities.    Upper  Sti ria,  Moravia,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Silesia. 

U.  S.  Bare  Hills,  near  Baltimore. 

Variety  3.     EARTHY  CARBONATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  whitish  or  yellowish  white  ; 
occurs  in  porous  masses  ;  fracture  earthy ;  yields  easily  to  the 
nail;  adheres  to  the  tongue;  sometimes  swims  on  water. 

Localities.     Samos,  Negropont,  Moravia,  and  Cornwall. 

It  is  called  Meerschaum  in  the  east,  and  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  fuller's  earth  is  with  us. 

Variety  4.     PULVERULENT  CARBONATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  white;  occurs  in 
small  masses,  which  fall  to  powder  on  drying:  soft  to  the 
touch;  soils  the  fingers;  soluble  in  sulphuric  acid. 

Localities.      India. 

U.  S.  Hoboken,  N.  J.  Discovered  by  James  Pierce,  Esq. 
Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  Roxborough,  Penn. 

Species  2.     SULPHATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  grayish  white; 
occurs  in  crystalline  fibres,  adhering  together  longitudinally; 
lustre,  silky  or  pearly;  translucent;  not  very  brittle ;  taste, 
bitter  and  nauseous. 

Chemical  characters.  Soluble  in  water,  from  which  it  is 
precipitated  by  the  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda.  Under  the 
blow  pipe,  it  boils,  gives  off  its  water  of  crystallization,  and 
remains  a  white,  infusible,  spongy  mass.  It  is  composed  of 
magnesia  and  sulphuric  acid. 

It  is  found  on  the  surface  of  decomposing  gypsum,  or  schis- 
tus,  on  the  surface  of  particular  soils,  arid  in  mineral  waters. 

Localities,  Epsom,*  in  England,  and  Seidlitz,  in  Bohemia. 
At  these  places  it  is  abundant  in  mineral  springs. 

U.  S.  Mammoth  Cave,  Ky.  Greenbriar,  and  Monroe  coun- 
ties, Va.  Near  Corydon,  In.,  in  abundance.  Coeymans, 
N.  Y. 

Species  3.     BL^DITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  flesh  red,  and  brick 
red ;  occurs  massive ;  structure  thin  columnar ;  fracture  un- 
even, splintery;  translucent;  becomes  white  and  opake  by 

*  Whence  Epsom  salt,  the  common  name  of  the  species. 


What  is  the  composition  of  the  sulphate  of  magnesia? — What  is  the 
common  name  of  this  salt,  and  whence  does  it  receive  this  name  '1 


INTRODUCTION  TO 

decomposition  ;  lustre  faintly  vitreous ;  soft ;  becomes  moist 
by  exposure  ;  taste  sharp,  bitter. 

Composition.  Sulphate  of  magnesia  36.66;  sulphate  of 
soda  33.34;  proto-sulphate  of  manganese  0.33;  muriate  of 
soda  0.33  ;  water  22. — John. 

Locality.     In  the  salt  mines  of  Ischel,  Lower  Austria. 

Species  4.      BORATE  or  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish,  grayish  or  green- 
ish white;  occurs  crystallized  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  variously 
modified  by  truncation ;  sometimes  all  the  edges  are  trunca- 
ted, but  in  every  case  the  diagonally  opposite  angles  are  dif- 
ferently modified,  sometimes  by  simple  truncation,  and  some- 
times by  bevelment;  the  solid  angles  are  subject  to  the  same 
diversity  ;  fracture  uneven,  passing  into  flat  conchoidal ;  lustre 
glistening;  transparent  or  translucent;  sometimes  gives  sparks 
with  steel ;  pyro-electric,  the  opposite  angles  being  in  opposite 
electrical  states. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  an  opake  white  glass. 

Composition.  Magnesia  16.6:  boracic  acid  83.4. —  Van- 
quelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  character  of  possessing  opposite 
electricities  at  its  opposite  angles,  and  the  dissimilar  opposite 
modifications  of  its  angles,  will  distinguish  it  from  all  other 
minerals  which  it  resembles. 

Localities.     Lower  Saxony,  imbedded  in  gypsum;    near 
Kiel,  in  Holstein,  imbedded  in  anhydrous  gypsum. 
GENUS  iv. — BARYTES. 

When  pure,  barytes  is  white,  has  a  caustic,  somewhat  al- 
kaline taste,  and  by  the  chemists  is  placed  among  the  alkaline 
earths.  It  is  a  strong  poison.  It  never  occurs  pure  in  nature, 
but  is  found  combined  with  the  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids, 
forming  carbonate  of  barytes,  and  sulphate  of  barytes. 

Species  1.     CARBONATE  OF  BARYTES. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  or  grayish  white,  or 
yellowish,  bluish,  or  greenish  ;  occurs  massive,  stalactical, 
and  in  crystals;  form,  resembling  closely  the  common  crys- 
tals of  quartz,  viz.  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  six-sided 
pyramids :  sometimes  with  the  apices  truncated ;  fracture  of 
the  massive,  undulated  ;  structure,  fibrous  or  bladed;  lustre 


In  what  is  borate  of  magnesia  found? — What  is  the  composition  of  this 
salt? — What  are  the_chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of  this  salt?— 
What  are  the  properties  of  barytes  7— What  are  the  native  t  alts  of  barytes? 


MINERALOGY.  89 

glistening ;  translucent  or  opake ;  scratches  carbonate  of  lime  ; 
sp.  gr.  4.4. 

Chemical  characters. — Fusible  into  a  white  enamel;  solu- 
ble with  effervescence,  in  dilute  nitric,  or  muriatic  acid,  a 
little  of  which  tinges  burning  alcohol  yellow. 

Composition.     Barytes  78  ;  carbonic  acid  22. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  weight  will  distinguish  it  from 
the  minerals  it  resembles,  except  strontian  and  the  sulphate  of 
barytes.  The  sulphate  does  not  effervesce  ;  and  carbonate  of 
strontian,  when  dissolved  in  an  acid,  and  mixed  with  alcohol, 
tinges  the  flame  purple,  instead  of  yellow. 

The  cells  of  the  massive  variety  of  this  substance,  often 
contain  the  crystallized  variety. 

When  reduced  to  thin  plates,  it  gives,  by  refracted  light,  two 
images,  one  bright,  and  the  other  nebulous. — Cleveland. 

The  native  carbonate  of  barytes,  is,  next  to  arsenic,  one  of 
the  strongest  of  mineral  poisons.  When  dissolved  in  muri- 
atic acid,  it  is  employed  in  minute  doses,  as  a  remedy  in  cer- 
tain diseases. 

"Localities.  It  was  first  discovered  by  Dr.  Withering  in 
Lancashire,  England,  hence  Witherite,  one  of  its  names.  It 
has  since  been  found  in  several  other  places  in  England,  in 
Hungary,  Stiria,  and  Siberia. 

U.  S.  Near  Lexington,  Ky. 

Species  2.   SULPHATE  OF  BARYTES. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white,  flesh 
red,  greenish  white,  and  bluish ;  occurs  crystallized  and  mas- 
sive; primitive  form,«a  right  four-sided  prism,  whose  bases  are 
rhombs ;  subject  to  a  variety  of  modifications  by  truncation ; 
structure  lamellar,  with  cleavage  in  three  directions;  crystals 
sometimes  curved  ;  lustre  shining,  between  pearly  and  vitre- 
ous ;  yields  easily  to  the  knife  ;  translucent :  sp.  gr.  4.446. — 
Mohs. 

These  crystals  are  generally  so  short,  as  to  take  the  tabular 
form. 

Fia.34.  Fig.  84.     The  primary  form,  a  right  prism, 

with  rhombic  bases. 

Chemical  characters.      Decrepitates,  becomes 
vitrified  on  the  outside,  and  finally  melts  into  an 
opake  white  enamel.     If  coloured  with  oxide  ot 
copper,  the  flame,  on  the  first  application  of  heat,   is  tinged 

What  is  said  of  the  poisonous  properly  of  carbonate  of  barytes? — Is  it 
rare  or  not? — What  are  the  prevailing  colours  of  sulphate  of  barytes? — 
What  are  its  chemical  chnrnoteus? 


90 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


•green,  otherwise  not ;  if  the  enamel  be  applied  to  the  tongue, 
it  tastes  like  rotten  eggs  5  it  does  not  effervesce  with  acids. 

Composition.     Barytes  67  ;  sulphuric  acid  33. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  specific  gravity  will  distinguish 
it  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles,  except  strontian,  car- 
bonate of  barytes,  and  carbonate  of  lead.  Strontian  after  fu- 
sion never  gives  the  fetid  taste  of  barytes ;  it  gives  a  purple 
flame,  when  dissolved  in  acid,  and  burned  with  alcohol ;  car- 
bonate of  strontian  effervesces ;  carbonate  of  lead  effervesces, 
and  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  under  the  blow  pipe. 

Sulphate  of  barytes  is  found  in  considerable  variety  of  form 
and  structure,  and  therefore  admits  of  a  number  of  sub-divi- 
sions. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  tints  which  occur  in  this  spe- 
cies, Mohs  has  noticed  the  following,  viz.  smalt  blue,  pale 
sky  blue,  almost  indigo  blue,  woad  brown,  and  hair  brown, 
bright  red,  and  yellow. 

Variety  1.  LAMELLAR  SULPHATE  OF  BARYTES. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white,  gray, 
reddish,  bluish,  or  greenish  ;  occurs  crystallized,  sometimes 
distinct,  but  commonly  in  foliated  masses ;  form,  the  right 
rhombic  prism,  subject  to  a  great  variety  of  truncations,  or 
bevelments  ;  crystals  compressed  into  a  tabular  form ;  gener- 
ally aggregated  into  masses,  so  as  to  present,  when  broken, 
longish  granular  particles,  of  various  sizes  ;  translucent ;  lus- 
tre shining,  pearly ;  fragments  rhomboidal ;  easily  broken. 
Fie.  35. 

Fig.  85.  A  four-sided  table,  a  common  form. 

Fig.  86.  A  right  prism  with  rhombic  bases 
modified  by  the  truncation  of  its  alternate  solid 
angles. 


Fig.  87.    A  four-sided  table  with  truncated 
terminal,  or  narrow  faces,  and  solid  angles. 


WThat  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  sulphate  of  baryte?  ?— What  arc 
the  crystalline  forms  of  the  lamel.'ar  sulphate  of  barytes? — What  are  the 
vareties  of  th'.s  species. 


MINERALOGY. 

Fig.  83. 

Fig.  88.  The  same,  with  the  narrow 
faces  modified  by  bevelment,  and  its  an- 
gles by  truncation. 

The  crystals  are  often  colourless  and  transparent,  and  al- 
though generally  small,  Lowry  mentions  one,  six  inches  long. 

The  laminse  of  this  variety  are  often  curved,  and  sometimes 
unite  in  a  point  like  the  petals  of  a  flower. 

Sometimes  the  folia  are  set  on  their  edges,  forming  thin 
crystals  called  cockscomb  spar.  / 

Variety  2.  COLUMNAR  HEAVY  SPAR. 

It  consists  of  very  thin  crystals,  which  are  aggregated  lon- 
gitudinally, or  are  collected  into  bundles,  or  columnar  groups; 
structure  foliated;  the  columns  striated  ;  lustre  pearly  ;  Jrans- 
lucent. 

Variety  3.     FIBROUS  HEAVY  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  chestnut  brown  ;  occurs  in 
botryoidal,  or  reniform  masses ;  structure  fibrous ;  lustre, 
shining,  resinous;  transparent;  brittle. 

Composition.  Sulphate  of  barytes  99 ;  with  a  trace  of 
iron. — Klaproth. 

Variety  4.    RADIATED  HEAVY  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  gray,  or  yellowish  gray  ; 
occurs  in  roundish  masses,  composed  of  radiating  minute  crys- 
tals, which  appear  to  come  from  the  centre,  and  to  project  un- 
equally on  the  surface,  giving  it  a  rough  exterior;  fracture 
foliated ;  translucent. 

This  variety  being  calcined,  then  mixed  with  mucilage  of 
gum  arabic,  and  formed  into  small  pieces,  and  again  heated, 
has  the  property,  after  exposure  to  light,  of  shining  in  the 
dark.  It  is  then  called  Bolosfnian  phosphorus. 

It  is  found  at  Bologna,  in  Italy;   hence  the  name. 
Variety  5.     GRANULAR  HEAVY  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  or  gray- 
ish white  ;  occurs  massive:  structure  finely  granular ;  grains, 
crystalline  and  lamellar  ;  lustre  shining;  feebly  translucent. 

Composition.     It  contains  10  per  cent,  of  silex. — Klaproth. 

Variety  6.     COMPACT   HEAVY  SPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish,  or  reddish 
white;  occurs  massive;  fracture  coarse,  earthy,  dull,  soft,  and 
brittle. 


92  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Localities.  It  is  found  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  in  the 
mines  of  Derbyshire. 

Subspecies  1.     FETID  SULPHATE  OF  BARYTES. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish,  brownish,  or 
blackish ;  occurs  in  globular  masses ;  structure  foliated  ;  gives 
n.  sulphureous  odour  when  rubbed,  or  heated ;  in  other  respects 
it  resembles  the  common  varieties. 

Composition.  Sulphate  of  barytes  85.2  ;  sulphate  of  lime 
6;  alumine  1  ;  oxide  of  iron  5;  carbon  0.5. — Klaproth. 

Uses.  The  pure  white  varieties  are  ground  and  used  as  a 
white  paint,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  white  lead,  which  can- 
not be  considered  as  an  imposition. — Mohs. 

Crystals  of  the  present  species  have  been  artificially  ob- 
tained by  dissolving  sulpho-cyanuret  of  barium  in  sulphuric 
acid,  and  allowing  this  solution  to  be  slowly  decomposed  by 
the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. — Mohs. 

Sulphate  of  barytes  is  found  in  veins,  in  primitive,  transi- 
tion, and  secondary  rocks.  Its  localities  are  numerous,  though 
it  seldom  occurs  in  large  quantities.  It  is  commonly  found 
with  the  ores  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  &c. 

,   Localities.     Its   foreign    localities   are    numerous,   being 
found  in  almost  every  country  where  mines  are  explored. 

II.  S.  Cheshire,  Berlin,  Farmington,  Hartford,  and  South- 
ington,  Conn. — Silliman.  Hatfield. —  Gorham.  Southamp- 
ton.— Eaton.  Middlefield  and  Greenfield,  Mass. — Hitchcock. 
Livingston's  lead  mine. — Shaejfer.  Little  Falls,  on  the  Mo- 
hawk.— Eaton.  The  Highlands,  near  the  Hudson,  N.  Y. — • 
Pierce  and  Torrey.  Near  Newton,  Sussex  County. — Chil 
ton.  On  the  west  side  of  Paulin's  Kill,  and  near  Scotch 
Plains,  N.  J. — Pierce  and  Torrey.  Pevikomen  lead  mine. — 
Wetherill.  Buck's  County,  3  miles  west  of  New  Hope. — 
Lea.  Bedford  County,  at  the  foot  of  Blue  Ridge,  Penn. — 
Wister.  Liberty,  Frederic  County,  and  Washington  County, 
Md. — Hayden.  Near  Lexington,  Ky. — Jcssup.  Several 
of  the  lead  mines  in  Missouri. — Schoolcraft. 

Species  3.     BARYTO-CALCITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  Grayish,  yellowish, 
or  greenish:  occurs  massive,  and  in  eight-sided  prismatic 
crystals  terminated  obtusely  ;  cleavage  more  or  less  perfect  in 
two  directions  ;  fracture  uneven,  imperfectly  conchoidal ;  some 


What  peculiar  property  has  fetid  sulphate  of  barytes? — What  are  the 
uses  of  this  species  ? — Is  this  a  common  or  rare  mineral  ? 


MINERALOGY.  93 

faces  of  the  cleavage  striated  ;  yields  to  the  knife;  lustre,  vit- 
reous ;  transparent,  translucent:  sp.  gr.  3.66. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone;  with  borax  gives  a 
clear  glass. 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  barytes  65.9 ;  carbonate  of 
lime  33.6. — Children. 

Localities.     Marston  Moor,  Cumberland,  England. 

GENUS  v. — STRONTIAN.* 

This  earth  in  many  respects  resembles  that  of  barytes.  It 
is  white,  and  fuses  with  difficulty.  It  is  never  found  pure  in 
nature,  but  is  combined  with  the  carbonic  and  sulphuric  acids, 
forming  a  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  strontian. 

Species  1.     CARBONATE  OF  STRONTIAN. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish,  or  green- 
ish white  ;  occurs  crystallized,  fibrous,  massive,  and  stellated  ; 
form,  the  hexahedral  prism,  modified  by  truncation,  or  termin- 
ated by  pyramids ;  structure  divergingly  fibrous,  or  bladed ; 
lustre,  shining,  pearly ;  fracture,  fine-grained,  uneven;  crys- 
tals small  or  acicular,  often  attached  to  the  massive;  yields  to 
the  knife  ;  brittle  :  sp.  gr.  nearly  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  glazed  on  the  outside,  but 
does  not  melt ;  tinges  the  flame  purplish  red  ;  effervesces  with 
nitric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  a  paper  dipped  in  the  solution, 
burns  with  a  purple  flame;  with  borax  dissolves  into  a  clear 
globule. 

Composition.  Strontian  69.5  ;  carbonic  acid  30. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  carbonate  of  barytes, 
but  the  carbonate  melts  without  tinging  the  flame.  It  is  found 
in  primitive  rocks,  with  the  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  and  copper,  and 
is  often  accompanied  by  sulphate  of  barytes,  and  calcareous 
spar. 

It  has  not  been  discovered  in  the  United  States. 

Species  2.     SULPHATE  OF  STRONTIAN.     CELESTINE.J 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish  white,  yel- 
lowish white  or  reddish,  and  more  rarely  light  blue;  occurs 
fibrous,  massive,  stellated,  and  crystallized;  form,  the  primi 
tive,  a  right  rhombic  prism,  the  alternate  angles  of  which 
according  to  Phillips,  are  104°  and  76°  ;  structure  lamellar 

*  From  its  having  been  discovered  at  Strontian,  in  Scotland, 
t  Sky  blue,  from  its  colour. 

Is  the  earth,  strontian,  ever  fqund  pure?^-What  are  the  chemical  ana 
distinctive  characters  of  carbonate  of  strontian? 


94  INTRODUCTION  TO 

with  joints  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  prism,  that  parallel  to 
the  base  being  particularly  distinct ;  lustre  shining,  between 
pearly  and  resinous ;  translucent  or  transparent;  yields  to  the 
knife;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  3.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  before  the  blow  pipe  into  a 
white  friable  enamel,  without  very  sensibly  tinging  the  flame; 
after  a  short  exposure  to  heat  it  becomes  opake,  and  then  ac- 
quires a  somewhat  caustic,  acrid  flavor,  very  different  from 
that  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  heavy  spar  acquires  in 
similar  circumstances. — Aiken.  Phosphoresces  on  hot  iron. 

Composition.  Strontian  58  ;  sulphuric  acid  42. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  the  carbonates  ot 
Strontian  and  barytes,  and  the  sulphate  of  barytes.  But  the 
distinctive  characters  given  under  each  of  those  species,  will 
distinguish  this  from  them. 

Variety  }.     FIBROUS  CELESTINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  milk  white,  passing  into 
blue,  or  sky  blue;  occurs  massive,  in  plates  and  in  fibrous 
crystals :  lustre  of  the  longitudinal  fracture  shining ;  cross 
fracture  glistening  and  pearly;  fracture  in  one  direction  fo- 
liated; translucent;  loses  its  colour  in  keeping;  easily  bro- 
ken :  sp.  gr.  3.8, 

This  variety  is  rare.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  thin  beds  or 
layers  like  gypsum,  its  fibres  being  perpendicular  to  the  sides 
of  the  bed. — Cleveland. 

Localities.  Montmatre,  near  Paris,  Switzerland,  Sicily, 
arid  in  several  places  in  England  and  Scotland. 

U.  S.  Frankstown,  in  the  Bald  Eagle  mountain,  Penn. 

Variety  2.     FOLIATED  CELESTIXE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  bluish,  or  sky 
blue;  occurs  massive,  and  crytsallized,  in  four  or  six-sided 
prisms,  variously  modified ;  sometimes  the  four-sided  prism 
is  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids ;  and  sometimes  the 
termination  is  dihedral ;  often  this  form  is  deeply  truncated 
on  its  lateral  edges,  so  as  to  produce  a  six-sided  prism  ;  crys- 
tals often  flat  or  tabular  ;  fracture  imperfectly  foliated ;  strong- 
ly translucent;  crystals  sometimes  transparent. 
Fig.  89. 

Fig.  89.  A  four-sided  prism  terminated  by  a 
two-sided  summit,  standing  on  the  obtuse  lateral 
angles  of  the  prism. 

What  is  the  composition  of  sulphate  of  Strontian?— Why  is  this  mineral 
called  celestine  ?— What  are  the  natural  salts  of  Strontian  ? 


MINERALOGY.  95 

Fig.  90. 

Fig1.  90.    A  four-sided  tabular  prism  terminated 
by  pentagonal,  or  five-sided  faces. 

Localities.  Bristol  and  Yorkshire,  England.  Tyrol,  and 
near  Cadiz. 

U.  S.  Lockport,  (Silliman,)  and  Moss  Island,  N.  Y. ;  the 
latter  discovered  by  Prof.  Douglass.  Near  Baltimore.  Mag- 
nificent crystals  have  been  found  on  Strontian  Island,  in  Lake 
Erie. — Mohs.- 

CLASS  II. 
EARTHY  MINERALS. 

This  Class  includes  such  minerals  as  are  composed  of  one 
or  more  earths.  Some  of  them  also  contain  small  portions  of 
one  or  more  metallic  oxides,  which  however  are  not  consid- 
ered as  essential  ingredients. 

GENUS  i. — QUARTZ. 

Pure  quartz,  as  it  exists  in  transparent  rock  crystal,  is  com- 
posed of  silex  or  siiicious  earth,  with  two  or  three  per  cent, 
of  water. 

Silex  is  perfectly  white,  without  either  taste  or  smell.  It 
feels  harsh;  is  insoluble  in  any  of  the  mineral  acids;  infusi- 
ble alone,  but  melts  and  forms  glass  with  potash.  It  is  a  com- 
pound body,  and  according  to  Berzelius,  is  composed  of  about 
50  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  united  to  an  equal  proportion  of  its 
base,  called  silicium. 

Species  1.     COMMON   QUARTZ. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  red,  bluish, 
brown,  and  greenish,  or  green,  or  transparent  and  colourless; 
occurs  massive ;  in  concretions,  with  a  diverging  and  acicu- 
lar  structure ;  in  confused  crystalline  masses,  of  which  the 
structure  is  not  visible :  also  in  crystals;  form,  the  six-sided 
prism,  terminated  by  six-sided  pyramids :  also  the  dodecahe- 
dron, or  double  six-sided  pyramid.  Both  forms  subject  to  a 
great  variety  of  modifications;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.63. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible.  Two  pieces  rubbed  to- 
gether give  a  peculiar  smell,  like  that  of  the  electric  fluid  ; 
insoluble  in  the  acids,  except  the  fluoric. 

Composition.     Silex  nearly  pure. — Berzelius. 

Of  what  earth  is  quartz  chiefly-composed  7— What  are  its  colour*  1- 
What  are  its  chemical  characters  1 


93 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Subspecies  1.     CRYSTALLIZED  QUARTZ. 

General  characters  as  in  the  species.      Common  form  of 
the  crystals,  six-sided   prisms,  terminated  by  six-sided  pyra- 
mids.    Primitive  form,  the  rhomboid. 
Fig.  91. 


Fig.  91.     The   six-sided  prism,  terminated   by 
six-sided  pyramids. 


Fig.  92. 


Fig.  93. 


Fig.  92.  The  dodecahedron,  or  two  six-sided 
pyramids,  joined  base  to  base,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  the  prism. 


Fig.  93.  The  two  pyramids  separated  from 
each  other  by  the  intervention  of  a  very  short 
six-sided  prism. 


Fig.  94. 


•*\  Fig.  94.  An  irregular  crystal,  three  planes  of 
the  pyramid  being  extended  at  the  expense  of  the 
others ;  a  form  not  uncommon. 


In  fig.  91,  the  terminating  pyramids  maybe  considered 
as  separated  several  inches  from  each  other,  by  the  interven- 
ing prism,  or  as  a  prism  several  inches  long,  terminated  by 
pyramids 

In  fig.  93,  the  pyramids  are  merely  separated  by  the  short 
prism  interposed  between  their  bases.  This  form,  however, 
is  still  considered  as  a  prism,  terminated  by  pyramids. 


What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  quartz? 


MINERALOGY.  97, 

In  fig.  92,  the  prism  entirely  disappears,  and  the  two  ter- 
minal pyramids  join  base  to  base.  It  now  assumes  a  figure 
of  twelve  sides,  each  end  beginning  and  terminating  a  six-sided 
pyramid 

These  crystals  are  subject  to  a  variety  of  modifications,  by 
truncation,  or  the  replacement  of  their  edges,  or  solid  angles, 
by  plane  faces  of  various  sizes  and  shapes. 

Crystallized  quartz,  not  only  occurs  in  single  distinct  crys- 
tals, but  is  often  found  implanted  in  groups,  the  pyramids  ot 
which  only  appear  distinct.  It  also  occurs  lining  the  cavities 
of-  other  minerals,  or  incrusting  their  surfaces  in  small,  but 
frequently  in  very  perfect  crystals,  the  pyramidal  terminations 
having  a  high  polish,  and  the  specimen  appearing  as  if  it  was 
studded  with  gems. 

Quartz  occurs  in  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Madagascar,  Dauphiny,  the  Alps,  Cornwall, 
&c. 

The  finest  crystals  come  from  Madagascar  and  the  Alps. 

Specimens  sometimes  contain  water,  air,  or  bitumen  en- 
closed. These  are  rare. 

Crystals  often  enclose  clay,  titanate,  hornblende,  asbestos, 
iron  ore,  native  silver,  &c. 

According  to  Pinkerton,  nature  produces  regular  rock  crys< 
tals  in  the  vast  caverns  of  the  Alps,  of  such  enormous  size, 
that  they  weigh  several  tons  each. 

U.  S.  The  localities  of  rock  crystal  are  very  numerous  in 
this  country.  A  few,  only  where  fine  specimens  are  found, 
can  be  given. 

Lake  George,  N.  Y.  The  crystals  are  perfectly  transpa^ 
rent,  and  sometimes  5  inches  long. — Silliman.  Frederic 
County,  Md.  The  crystals  are  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  are  perfectly  transparent.- — Hayden.  Grafton, 
Vt.  Remarkably  pure  and  translucent.— Hall.  Newbury 
District,  S.  C.  Abington  and  Plainfield,  Mass.  Canada  Creek, 
Fairfield,  St.  Lawrence  Co.  N.  Y.,  in  great  abundance. 
Chesterfield,  Mass,  peculiarly  modified.  Notch  of  the  White 
Mountains,  N.  H.  where  fine  specimens  of  the  smoky  variety^ 
are  found.  West  Hartford,  Conn,  small,  but  beautifully  trans- 
parent and  regular  crystals,  in  the  trap^formation. 

Uses,  it  is  much  used,  when  cut  and  polished,  as  an  in- 
ferior gem.  The  ancients  made  engravings  upon  it,  but  it  is 
considered  too  soft  for  this  purpose.  The  transparent  variety 

Where  are  the  finest  specimens  of  quartz  found  ? — What  are  the  uses  of 
quar'z  1 

9 


98  INTRODUCTION  TO 

is  polished  for  spectacles,  and  has  the  advantage  of  not  being 
easily  scratched. 

Crystals  may  be  coloured  by  plunging  them  while  hot 
into  a  vegetable  or  metallic  solution  which  possesses  colour, 
but  they  are  very  apt  to  crack  by  the  process. 

Quartz,  when  set,  may  be  distinguished  from  glass,  or  paste, 
by  touching  it  with  a  fine  file,  which  will  cut  the  glass,  but 
will  not  scratch  the  quartz. 

The  varieties  of  this  species  are  numerous,  and  are  distin- 
guished chiefly  by  their  colours. 

Variety  1.     AVANTURINE. 

External  characters. — Colours,  brown,  yellow,  gray, 
bluish,  greenish,  or  white  ;  variegated  by  brilliant  points  or 
spangles,  of  a  golden  or  silver  colour. 

These  spangles  are  small  plates  of  mica,  of  various  colours, 
interspersed  through  the  mass.  It  is  employed  in  jewelry, 
and  some  specimens  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  It  is  some- 
times imitated  by  art,  apparently,  by  sprinkling  recent  brass 
filings  into  melted  glass. 

Localities. — Cape  de  Gatte,  Spain.  This  is  of  the  finest 
kind.  Scotland,  England,  France,  &c. 

Use. — It  is  much  esteemed  in  jewelry. 

Variety  2.     PRASE.     GREEN  QUARTZ. 

External  characters. — Colour,  dark  green  ;  occurs  in  crys- 
tals, and  crystalline  masses ;  lustre  resinous,  or  vitreous  ; 
translucent. 

It  is  seldom  crystallized,  but  is  commonly  found  in  pebbles, 
or  masses  among  other  minerals. 

It  seems  to  be  common  quartz  coloured  with  actynolite,  or 
perhaps  epidote.  Sometimes  the  fibres  of  the  actynolite  are 
distinct. 

Localities. — Saxony,  in  a  metallic  bed.  Scotland,  with  ac- 
tynolite. Moravia,  England,  &c. 

.  U.  S  On  Lake  Superior.  Near  Baltimore,  and  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  Md.  Milton,  Brighton,  and 
West  Cambridge,  Mass.  Cumberland,  R.  I. 

Use.  It  is  much  esteemed  as  an  ornamental  stone,  and  is 
cut  and  polished  for  jewelry. 

What  is  the  colour  and  appearance  of  avanturine  ?— Wh.  at  is  the  colour 
of  prase  7 — How  does  prase  differ  from  common  quartz  ? 


MINERALOGY.  99 

Variety  3.     MILKY  QUARTZ. 

External  characters. — Colour,  milk  white  ;  occurs  massive 
and  in  crystals  ;  hardness,  that  of  quartz. 

When  crystallized,  it  is  remarkable  that  the  crystals  are 
more  regular  in  their  forms  than  those  of  the  transparent  va- 
riety.— Phillips. 

Variety  4.     ROSE  QUARTZ. 

External  characters. — Colour  rose-red,  which  in  small 
pieces  appears  pale.  Occurs  massive  and  in  crystals  ;  trans- 
lucent, or  nearly  transparent. 

It  fades,  when  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the  light.  Its 
colour  is  probably  owing  to  a  small  quantity  of  manganese. 

Localities.     Bavaria,  Bohemia,  Finland,  Siberia. 

U.  S.  Southbury,  Con.  It  is  of  a  delicate  colour,  and 
forms  an  insulated  mass. — Silliman.  Also  at  East-Haddam, 
Plainfield,  and  Williamsburgh,  Mass.;  Westch ester,  N.  Y.; 
Keene  and  Ac  worth,  N.  H.;  Paris,  Maine. 

Use.     It  is  cut  and  polished  for  jewelry. 

Variety  5.     AMETHYST.     VIOLET  QUARTZ. 

External  characters. — Colour,  violet  blue,  often  deep  and 
pale  in  the  same  specimen ;  occurs  most  commonly  in  crys- 
tals ;  form  the  same  as  common  quartz ;  crystals  generally 
grouped,  the  pyramids  only  appearing  distinct;  translucent ; 
hardness,  that  of  quartz. 

Composition.  Silex  97.50 ;  alumine  0.25 ;  oxide  of  iron 
0.50  ;  oxide,  of  manganese  0.25. — Rose. 

Crystals  of  amethyst  are  rarely  of  the  same  colour  through- 
out. The  summits  only,  are  commonly  purple,  the  prism  be- 
ing colourless,  or  tinged  greenish. 

The  Orientals  were  very  partial  to  this  stone.  The  colour 
they  considered  that  of  new  wine,  and  the  Persians  believed 
that  wine  drank  from  a  cup  of  amethyst,  would  not  intoxicate. 
The  oriental  amethyst  is  a  sapphire,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  present  species  was  the  one  so  highly  esteemed,  as  the 
sapphire  is  found  only  in  small  crystals. 

Crystals  of  amethyst  very  rarely  occur  single,  but  are  fas- 
ciculated, or  aggregated,  and  separate  into  irregular  columnar 
pieces,  when  struck. 

By  long  exposure  to  heat,  the  colour  is  said  to  disappear, 

What  is  the  colour  of  rose  quartz? — Does  it  occur  massive,  or  crystal* 
lized  ?    What  is  the  colour  of  amethyst  ? 


100  INTRODUCTION  TO 

It  occurs  in  greenstone,  and  porphyry,  often  forming  geodes. 
It  is  also  sometimes  found  in  primitive  rocks. 

Uses.  It  is  highly  valued  as  an  ornamental  stone,  and  is 
cut  and  set  for  ear-rings,  necklaces,  watch  seals,  &c.  at  the 
present  day. 

The  name  amethyst  occurs  in  Scripture.  It  was  the  ninth 
stone  in  order,  on  the  Jewish  hi^h-priest's  breastplate  of  judg- 
ment, with  the  name  Issachar  engraved  thereon. 

Some  of  the  finest  engravings  are  on  this  stone.  Among 
these  are  the  bust  of  Trajan  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris  ; 
and  more  recently  done,  are  the  Apollo  Belvidere,  the  Farnese 
Hercules,  and  the  group  of  Laocoon,  by  Sirleti. 

Localities.  Cambay  in  India,  Siberia,  Spain,  Sweden,  Bo- 
hemia, France,  England,  &c. 

The  finest  are  brought  from  India,  Spain,  and  Siberia. 

U.  S.  Wallingford,  Farmingtqn,  Berlin,  and  East-Haven, 
Conn. — Cleveland.  Mount  Tom,  Mass,  in  beautiful  crystals. — 
Silliman.  Ludlovr  and  Westminster,  Vt.  Pacquenack  Moun- 
tain, and  at  Patterson,  N.  J.  Chester  County,  Penn.  in  large 
transparent  crystals. — Gilmor.  Hampton  Falls,  and  White 
Hills,  N.  H.  Belchertovvn,  Mass,  in  rounded  masses,  some- 
times 18  inches  in  diameter. — Shepard. 

Variety  6.     YELLOW  QUARTZ.     CITRINE 

External  characters.  Colour,  wine,  honey,  or  straw  yel- 
low; occurs  massive  and  in  crystals ,  translucent;  semi-trans- 
parent. 

When  heated,  its  colour  entirely  disappears  in  a  few  seconds. 

It  is  called  false,  or  Bohemia  topaz. 

Localities.     Cairngorm,  Scot. ;  Cornwall,  Eng. 

U.  S.  Southampton,  Mass.  Near  St.  Louis,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Mississippi.  Blue  Ridge,  Penn..  Ac  worth,  N.  H. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  topaz,  for  which  citrine  is 
often  mistaken,  scratches  quartz,  which  citrine  does  not. 

Variety  7.     BROWN  QUARTZ. 

External  characters.  Colour,  various  shades  of  brown, 
translucent. 

Localities.  Jetland  furnishes  the  finest  crystals  of  this  va- 
riety. 

Variety  8.     FERRUGINOUS  QUARTZ. 
External  characters.     Colour,  yellowish,  or  reddish,  some- 
what use  is  made  of  amethyst? — What  is  said  of  the  occurrence  of  this 
name  m  the  Scriptures?  j 


MINERALOGY*.  101 

times  blood,  or  brownish  red;  occurs  massive  and  crystallized 
in  the  usual  form  of  quartz ;  translucent  or  opake ;  fracture 
small  conchoidal. 

Chemical  characters.  Some  specimens  become  magnetic 
when  heated. 

Composition.  Silex  93.5  ;  oxide  of  iron  5.0  ;  water  1.0. — 
Rucholtz. 

The  massive  variety  is  sometimes  crystallized  on  the  sur- 
face; and  sometimes  groups  of  common  white  crystals  termi- 
nate in  ferruginous  quartz,  the  summits  only  being  coloured. 

This  variety  of  quartz  is  coloured  by  the  oxide  of  iron : 
hence  when  the  yellowish  kinds  are  exposed  to  heat,  oxygen 
is  absorbed,  and  the  colour  is  changed  to  red. 

Ferruginous  quartz  is  most  commonly  found  in  primitive 
mountains,  associated  with  the  ores  of  iron. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  Spain,  England,  Scotland,  Siberia, 
and  Saxony. 

U.  S.  Litchfield,  Conn.  At  Mentzer's  Gap,  Penn.  in 
loose  masses,  terminated  at  each  extremity  by  three  faces. — 
Hay  den. 

Variety  9.     IRISED   QUARTZ. 

This  variety  is  peculiar  only  for  reflecting  a  series  of  pris- 
matic colours,  either  internally,  or  externally.  When  the  re- 
flection is  external,  it  probably  proceeds  from  the  deposite  of 
some  metallic  oxide  on  the  quartz.  The  internal  colours  ob- 
viously proceed  from  cracks  or  fissures,  which  are  sometimes 
in  the  direction  of  the  natural  joints. 

Sometimes  the  internal  play  of  colours  may  be  produced 
by  plunging  a  crystal,  moderately  heated,  into  cold  water. 

Variety  10.     RADIATED  QUARTZ. 

It  occurs  in  crystals  generally  small,  and  closely  aggrega- 
ted, which  radiate  from  a  point. 

Variety  11.     STALACTICAL  QUARTZ. 

This  variety,  according  to  Phillips,  occurs  in  one  of  the 
Cornwall  copper  mines.  It  has,  in  no  respect,  the  appearance 
of  chalcedony,  since  it  consists  of  straight  stalactites  several 
inches  long,  composed  of  an  aggregation  of  crystals  diverging 
from  the  centre. 

A  beautiful  specimen  of  this  variety  in  my  possession,  from 
South  America,  is  studded  at  every  point  externally  with 
small  brilliant  crystals.  Internally,  and  particularly  near  the 
surface,  it  is  composed  of  aggregated,  radiating  crystals. 
Colour,  milk-white. 

9* 


102  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  12.     PSEUDOMORPHOUS  QUARTZ. 

This  variety  either  takes  the  forms  of  crystals,  or  of  cavi- 
ties once  occupied  by  crystals. 

These  specimens  sometimes  present  very  curious  appear- 
ances, viz. :  hollow  vacant  spaces,  of  the  exact  form  of  some 
crystal  which  the  quartz  had  once  invested,  but  which  had 
been  decomposed  and  washed  away.  Also,  the  solid  form  of 
some  crystal,  under  which  real  crystals  of  quartz  never  ap- 
pear, and  which  form  it  took  from  the  deposition  of  quartz  into 
the  cavity  once  occupied  by  some  real  crystal. 

Localities.     Bristol,  Cornwall,  and  Durham,  Eng. 

U.  S.  Southampton  and  Deerfield,  Mass.  Simsbury, 
Conn. 

Variety  13.     FETID  QUARTZ. 

Extewial  characters.  Colour,  gray,  of  several  shades, 
sometimes  marked  with  spots  or  stripes  of  a  dark  hue  ;  occurs 
massive,  and  sometimes  in  crystals  5  translucent  5  lustre  re- 
sinous ;  gives  a  fetid  odour  when  struck. 

According  to  Professor  Cleveland,  this  variety,  never  trans- 
parent, is  always  translucent  or  opake,  and  in  some  instances 
phosphoresces  by  friction. 

The  odour  which  it  emits  is  like  that  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen, and  probably  arises  from  some  bituminous  matter,  which 
at  the  same  time  gives  it  colour. 

Localities.     Near  Nantes,  in  France. 

U.  S.  Topsham,  Me.  On  the  banks  of  Connecticut  river, 
from  Bellows  Falls  to  Middletown. — Hitchcock. 

Variety  14.     SPONGIFORM  QUARTZ. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  yellowish,  or  grayish 
white ;  occurs  massive ;  texture  loose  and  spongy ;  easily 
broken ;  very  light ;  scratches  glass ;  floats  on  water  for  a 
few  minutes. 

Composition.  Silex,  98;  carbonate  of  Lime,  2. —  Van- 
quelin. 

Professor  Mohs  says,  that  float-stone  consists  of  a  delicate 
tissue  of  minute  crystals,  visible  under  a  powerful  magnifier, 
and  that  it  insensibly  passes  into  hornstone  and  flint. 

Variety  15.     GRANULAR  QUARTZ. 

External  characters.     Colour,  white,   or  grayish  white; 

What  is  pseudomorphous  quartz  1 — How  is  fetid  quartz  distinguished  T 
What  is  said  of  spongiform  quartz  ? 


MINERALOGY.  103 

occurs  massive ;  structure,  fine  granular ;  often  friable ;  some- 
times flexible ;  opake. 

The  appearance  of  this  variety  resembles  a  white  sand- 
stone without  cement.  In  thin  plates  it  is  sometimes  slightly 
flexible. 

It  sometimes  forms  extensive  beds. 

Localities.  Brazil  and  near  St.  Gothard.  Whitby,  Eng. 
The  flexible  kind  occurs  at  all  these  localities. 

U.  S.  Vernon  and  Middlebury,  Vt.  Williamstown,  Mass, 
where  it  forms  a  hill. 

Variety  16.     SMOKY  QUARTZ. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brownish  yellow,  of  various 
shades ;  translucent,  or  nearly  transparent. 

Objects  seen  through  it  appear  as  they  do  through  smoked 
glass. 

Localities.     Cairngorm,  Scot.,  and  Brazil. 

U.  S.  White  Hills,  N.  H.  Shrewsbury  and  Wardsbo- 
rough,  Vt.  Lancaster  County,  Penn.  Fine  crystals. — Sey- 
bert.  Cornwall,  and  Torrington,  Conn.  Topsham,  Me. 
Acworth,  N.  H.  Fine  specimens. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  in  jewelry.  Some  very  ancient  en- 
gravings are  said  to  be  on  this  kind  of  stone. 

Species  2.     CAT'S  EYE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  gray,  with  a  greenish  tinge  ; 
also  brown  or  reddish ;  gives  out  internal  white  chatoyant 
reflections  of  light,  sometimes  greenish  and  pearly,  resembling 
the  reflection  from  the  eye  of  the  cat ;  translucent  in  one  di- 
rection, and  nearly  transparent  in  another  ;  scratches  quartz. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  opake  and 
spotted,  by  heat. 

Composition.  Silex,  95;  alumine,  1.75;  lime,  1.50;  oxide 
of  iron,  0.25. — Klaproth. 

This  is  a  singular  and  beautiful  little  stone,  which  comes 
from  India,  ready  cut  and  polished.  The  size  is  about  that 
of  half  a  hazlenut,  and  it  is  generally  cut  in  form  of  an  ovate 
hemisphere.  Its  peculiar  pearly  reflections  are  said  to  be 
caused  by  minute  fibres  of  amianthus,  by  which  it  is  pene- 
trated. 

It  is  in  great  request  as  a  gem,  and  bears  a  high  price. 

Its  geological  situation  and  localities  are  unknown. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  smoky  quartz  7— What  peculiarity  has 
eye  1— What  is  the  cause  of  the  pearly  reflections  in  this  stone? 


104  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  3.     OPAL.* 

This  species  contains  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  costijr 
of  precious  stones.  The  composition  of  opal  differs  from  that 
of  quartz,  chiefly  in  its  containing  a  greater  quantity  of  water. 
None  of  the  varieties  are  hard  enough  to  give  fire  with  steel. 

Variety  1.     PRECIOUS  OPAL.     NOBLE  OPAL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  milk  white,  or  yel- 
lowish white ;  occurs  in  small  masses,  or  concretions  ;  trans- 
lucent, or  transparent ;  presents  as  it  is  turned  in  different  di- 
rections towards  the  light,  most  of  the  prismatic  colours  ; 
fracture  conchoidal ;  scratches  glass ;  easily  broken :  sp.  «r. 
2.1. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates  and  loses  its  colours 
when  heated,  but  is  infusible. 

Composition.     Silex  90  ;  water  10. — Klaproth. 

The  precious  opal  is  readily  known  from  its  beautiful  dis- 
play of  changeable  colours;  these  are  green,  blue,  yellow, 
red,  and  purple  of  various  shades,  proceeding  from  the  interior 
of  the  gem,  and  depending  on  the  direction  in  which  it  is  turn- 
ed towards  the  light. 

The  phenomenon  of  this  beautiful  play  of  colours,  has  not 
been  satisfactorily  explained.  Hauy  attributes  it  to  the  fis- 
sures of  the  exterior  being  filled  with  films  of  air,  agreeably  to 
the  law  of  Newton's  coloured  rings,  when  two  pieces  of  glass 
are  pressed  together. 

Mohs  objects  to  this  explanation,  on  the  ground  that,  were 
this  the  fact,  the  opal  would  present  nothing  but  a  kind  of 
irridiscence. 

Dr.  Brewster,  however,  after  a  great  number  of  observa- 
tions, concludes  that  the  play  of  light  depends  upon  openings 
in  the  interior  of  the  mass  of  opal,  which  are  not  accidental 
fissures,  but  of  a  uniform  shape,  and  which  reflect  the  tints  ot 
Newton's  scale. 

The  opal  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  who  states  that  the  Roman  senator  Nonius  chose  to 
suffer  banishment,  rather  than  part  with  a  valuable  one  to 
Mark  Antony. 

Localities.     Hungary ;  where  it  is  found  in  small  masses, 

*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  eye.  The  ancients  believed  this  stone  had 
the  power  of  strengthening  the  eye. 


•  t  What  is  the  composition  of  precious  opal  ? — How  may  this  gem  be  dis 
tinguished  ?— What  causes  its  variety  of  colours? 


MINERALOGV.  105 

in  a  vein  of  claystone  porphyry.  Also  in  the  Faroe  Islands ; 
near  Freyberg,  and  in  South  America. 

The  Hungarian  opal  mines  are  at  Czerwiniza,  where  they 
are  found  of  various  qualities,  from  the  white  translucent  com- 
mon opal,  to  the  utmost  refulgence  of  the  lively  play  of  colours 
by  which  that  noble  gem  is  distinguished. 

Uses.  The  opal  is  cut  and  polished  for  the  finest  and  most 
costly  kind  of  jewelry.  In  setting  it,  a  black  foil  is  said  to 
have  a  powerful  effect  in  heightening  its  play  of  colours. 
Some  opals  of  remarkable  beauty,  are  equal  in  value  to  the 
diamond. 

Jameson  relates,  that  in  the  cabinet  at  Vienna,  there  are 
two  pieces  of  opal,  one  of  which  is  5  1-2  inches  long,  by  2 
1-2  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  other  about  the  size  of  a  hen's 
egg.  Both  of  them  exhibit  a  very  rich  and  resplendent  play 
of  colours.  These  are  from  Hungary,  and  probably  the 
largest  specimens  ever  found. 

Variety  2.     FIRE  OPAL. 

External  characters.  This  variety  differs  from  the  pre- 
cious opal  in  possessing  only  a  red  reflection,  when  turned 
towards  the  sun,  or  a  strong  light. 

The  colour  of  fire  opal  is  bluish  white,  milk  white,  or  yel- 
lowish. It  is  said  to  occur  with  the  precious  opal,  but  to  be 
much  more  rare. 

Jameson  describes  a  fire  opal  of  a  hyacinth  red,  which  gives 
carmine  red,  and  greenish  reflections.  It  comes  from  Mexico. 

Mr.  Phillips  possesses  a  specimen  of  fire  opal  from  Corn- 
wall. 

Variety  3.     COMMON  OPAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  with  shades  of  yellow, 
blue,  or  green  ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  rolled  pieces ;  fracture 
perfectly  conchoidal ;  fragments  sharp-edged ;  lustre  resino- 
vitreous ;  translucent ;  is  scratched  by  quartz ;  brittle ;  scratches 
glass:  sp.  gr.  2.  1.  hh 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible  ;  insoluble  in  acids. 

Composition.  Silex92;  water  7.75;  oxide  of  iron  0.25 
— Phillips.  hh  hh 

This  variety  is  entirely  without  the  play  of  prismatic  colours 
which  makes  the  precious  opal  so  valuable. 

When  viewed  by  the  transmitted  light,  the  milk-white  va- 
riety oftens  appears  of  a  different  colour 

What  is  the  use  of  this  stone  ? — How  does  the  common  differ  from  the 
precious  opal  1 


106  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Distinctive  characters.  Pitchstone,  which  it  may  some- 
times resemble,  is  fusible,  and  of  a  darker  colour.  Its  fracture 
is  more  perfectly  conchoidal,  and  it  is  more  translucent  than 
semi-opal.  It  is  not  as  hard  as  chalcedony,  cacholong,  or 
hornstone. 

Localities.  Hungary,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Silesia.  In 
Hungary  it  is  found  with  the  precious  opal. 

U.  S.  Near  Easton,  Penn.     Litchfield,  Conn. 

Uses.     It  is. cut  and  polished  for  jewelry. 

Some  fine  ancient  engravings  are  on  this  stone,  but  it  is 
considered  too  soft  for  this  purpose.  Of  modern  engravings 
on  it,  a  cameo  is  mentioned,  bearing  a  likeness  of  Louis  XIII. 
when  a  child. 

Variety  4.     SEMI-OPAL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish,  yellowish, 
or  brownish  ;  occurs  in  compact  masses,  also  stalactical  and 
reniform;  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal;  translucent  or 
nearly  opake;  colours  generally  dull,  and  sometimes  runs  in 
spots  or  veins;  brittle;  often  covered  with  an  opake  crust 
from  decomposition. 

Chemical  character.     Infusible,  but  turns  white. 

Composition.  Silex  85  ;  carbon  1  ;  ammoniacal  water  8  ; 
oxide  of  iron  1.75. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  more  opake  than  'common 
opal;  and  is  also  harder.  Pitchstone  is  generally  of  a  darker 
colour,  and  is  fusible.  It  never  possesses  the  peculiar  milky 
whiteness  of  cacholong,  nor  the  hardness  of  chalcedony. 

It  occurs  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  especially  in  silver 
veins,  traversing  granite  and  gneiss. 

Localities.     Greenland,  Iceland,  Faroe  Isles,  and  France. 

U.  S.  Bare  Hills,  Md.  Corlear's  hook,  N.  Y.  At  the 
Falls  of  the  Delaware,  Penn. 

Variety  5.     WOOD  OPAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  several  tints  of  white,  gray, 
brown,  and  black ;  occurs  massive,  with  a  ligneous  aspect ; 
fracture  conchoidal;  harder  than  semi-opal;  lustre  resinous 
or  waxy ;  translucent  on  the  edges,  or  opake  :  sp.  gr.  2. 

This  variety  resembles  semi-opal,  except  in  its  woody  ap- 
pearance. 

It  is  distinguished,  according  to  Phillips,  from  petrified 

What  is  the  use  of  common  opal  7— What  are  the  distinctive  characters 
of  common  opal  ? 


MINERALOGY.  107 

wood,  by  its  greater  lightness  and  translucency,  and  its  con- 
choidal  fracture. 

Localities.     Hungary,  in  alluvium.    Transylvania,  in  trap. 
Variety  6.     FERRUGINOUS  OPAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  some  shade  of  red,  yellow, 
gray,  or  brown,  generally  deep,  sometimes  spotted  ;  occurs 
massive;  opake  or  feebly  translucent  at  the  edges;  fracture 
flat  conchoidal :  lustre  shining:  sp.  gr.  2. 

Composition.     Silex  43.5;  oxide  of  iron  47  ;  water  7.5. 

Distinctive  characters.  Differs  externally  from  common 
)pal  in  the  deepness  of  its  colours.  It  probably  passes  into 
asper,  from  which  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  it. 

Localities.  Hungary,  Siberia,  Saxony,  and  near  Constan- 
inople. 

Variety  7.     HYDROPHANE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white, t>r  yellowish  ;  occurs 
fnassive,  and  in  small  concretions ;  opake,  when  dry,  but  be- 
:omes  translucent  and  opalescent  after  immersion  in  water; 
adheres  to  the  tongue ;  fracture  conchoidal. 

Composition.  Silex  93. 13-  water  §.25;  alumine  1.62. — 
Klaprotk. 

The  curious  property  which'  this  variety  possesses  of  be- 
coming transparent,  on  immersion,  seems  to  depend  on  the 
porous  nature  of  the  stone.  Other  porous  substances,  con- 
taining air,  as  white  paper  and  linen,  become  more  or  less 
transparent  when  their  pores  are  filled  with  water  instead  of 
air. 

Winklemann  describes  an  ancient  engraved  stone,  with 
three  layers,  one  of  which  was  white;  and  says  that  the 
white  layer  became  black,  when  the  ring  in  which  it  was  set 
was  worn,  but  that  it  became  white  again  when  the  ring  was 
laid  aside. 

It  is  probable  that  the  white  layer  was  an  hydrophone,  and 
that  the  moisture  of  the  hand  rendered  it  so  transparent  as  to 
show  the  black  one  to  which  it  was  attached,  through  it,  and 
thus  to  make  itself  appear  black. — Rees*  Cyclop. 
Species  4.     FLINT. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  yellow,  and  blackish, 
of  various  shades ;  occurs  in  nodular  masses,  covered  exter- 

*  From  the  Greek,  in  allusion  to  its  becoming  transparent  in  water. 

What  are  the  colours  of  Tiydrophane  1 — Whence  comes  the  name  of  this 
variety  1 — How  is  the  transparency  of  this  stone  accounted  for  when  im- 
mersed in  water  ? 


t08  INTRODUCTION  TO 

naily  with  a  white  chalky  coat ;  texture  compact;  fracture 
perfectly  conchoidal ;  lustre  glimmering,  somewhat  greasy  ; 
fragments  sharp-edged;  translucent  on  the  edges;  gives 
lively  and  copious  sparks  with  steel;  scratches  quartz :  sp. 
gr.  2.58  to  2.63. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  loses  its  colour,  and 
becomes  opake  and  brittle. 

Composition.  Silex  98  ;  lime  0.5 ;  alumine  0.25  ;  oxide 
of  iron  0.25;  water  1. — Klaproth. 

It  is  found  in  the  upper  part  of  chalk  formations,  in  marl,  in 
limestone  formations,  and  in  alluvial  deposites. 

Localities.  Denmark,  Poland,  Siberia,  France,  England. 
Immense  beds  are  found  in  the  north  of  France,  and  at  Dover, 
in  England. 

Nodules  of  flint  are  sometimes  found  enclosing  organic  re- 
mains, and  Kirwaifcquotes  an  author  who  says  that  126  silver 
coins  were  found  in  different  nodules  of  flint  at  Grinoc,  in 
Denmark,  and  an  iron  nail,  at  Potsham. 

Uses.  Its  most  important  use  is  that  of  making  gun  flints. 
It  therefore  assumes  a  very  important  rank  among  minerals, 
and  particularly  when  it  is  considered  that  the  defence,  and 
even  liberty  of  a  nation  may  depend  on  its  locality. 

The  manufacture  of  gun  flints  is  chiefly  confined  to  France 
and  England.  In  the  former  country,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Seine  and  Marne,  immense  beds  of  flints  are  found,  and  the 
manufacture  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent. 

Good  stones  for  this  purpose  are,  however,  comparatively 
scarce,  for  Dolomieu  states,  that  out  of  20  beds,  which  the 
workmen  go  through,  not  more  than  one  or  two  contain  good 
flints  for  working.  Nor  can  the  stones,  though  good  when 
first  raised,  be  worked  after  being  exposed  to  the  air  for  any 
considerable  time. 

The  instruments  used  in  fashioning  gun  flints  are,  a  large 
hammer  with  square  heads ;  a  small  hammer  with  blunt 
points,  nearly  in  the  form  of  a  triangle  ;  a  little  steel  instru- 
ment, in  shape  of  a  wheel,  with  a  handle  in  the  centre,  called 
a  roller ;  and  a  chisel  seven  or  eight  inches  long,  bevelled  on 
both  sides. 

Having  selected  a  good  specimen  of  silex,  the  workman 
seats  himself  on  the  ground  and  proceeds  as  follows. 

Placing  the  mass  on  the  left  thigh,  he  divides  it  in  the  mid- 
dle with  a  few  gentle  blows  of  the  large  hammer. 

How  does  flint  differ  from  other  species  of  quartz  1 — What  are  the  uses 
of  flint? 


MINERALOGY.  109 

He  next  takes  one  half  of  the  mass,  and  with  the  small 
hammer,  breaks  it  into  pieces  about  2^-  inches  long,  1£  wide, 
and  i  of  an  inch  thick.  This  requires  peculiar  dexterity  and 
much  experience. 

To  fashion  the  flint;  he  places  one  of  the  small  pieces  on 
the  edge  of  the  chisel,  which  is  supported  by  the  fore-finger  of 
the  left  hand,  and  with  light  blows  of  the  roller,  it  breaks 
along  the  edge  of  the  chisel,  and  is  thus  reduced  to  its  proper 
shape  and  size. 

The  operation  of  fashioning  a  gun  flint  is  done  in  less  than 
a  minute,  and  a  good  workman  will  produce  a  thousand  per 
day. 

About  800  people  are  employed  in  this  species  of  manufac- 
ture, in  a  particular  section  of  France,  and  they  have  excava- 
ted a  great  proportion  of  the  plain  they  inhabit. 

Species  5.     CHALCEDONY.* 

This  species  presents  several  varieties  which  nearly  agree 
in  respect  to  fracture  and  hardness,  but  differ  chiefly  in  respect 
to  colour.  In  several  instances,  however,  they  mutually  pass 
into  each  other,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine 
where  one  variety  terminates  and  the  other  begins.  Chalced- 
ony also  pisses  insensibly  into  agate  and  carnelian,  and  per- 
haps into  horngtone. 

Variety  1.     COMMON  CHALCEDONY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  bluish  white,  pale 
yellow,  brownish,  greenish,  and  gray ;  occurs  in  small  masses, 
in  nodules,  stalactical  concretions,  and  in  hollow  crusts ;  sur- 
face rough  :  fracture  conchoidal,  or  uneven  ;  fragments  sharp- 
edged  ;  lustre  vitreous ;  harder  than  flint ;  translucent,  with 
a  cloudy,  or  milky  appearance:  sp.  gr.  2.60. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  white  and  opake. 

Composition.     Silex  84  ;  alumine  16. — Bergman. 

Chalcedony,  when  viewed  by  transmitted  light,  appears 
milky,  and  sometimes  clouded. 

It  almost  always  occurs  externally  with  a  dark-coloured, 
corroded  crust,  and  is  often  found  hollow,  with  crystals  ol 
quartz  lining  its  cavities. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  more  transparent  than  flint  5 
is  never  reddish,  like  carnelian ;  nor  milk  white  and  opake, 

*  From  Chalcedon  in  Asia,  where  it  was  found  by  the  ancients. 

How  are  the  nodules  of  this  stone  formed  into  gun  flints? — Whence 
comes  the  name,  chalcedony? — What  is  chalcedony  composed  of? — In 
what  form  does  this  mineral  chiefly  occur  1 
10 


110  INTRODUCTION  TO 

like  cacholong ;  nor  striped,  like  onyx  and  agate.  It  also 
differs  from  all  these  in  exhibiting  marks  of  internal  mamilla- 
ry  concretions,  when  held  between  the  eye  and  the  light. 

Chalcedony  is  often  called  by  jewellers,  white  carnel.'an. 

It  is  found  in  the  cavities  of  rocks,  as  amygdaloid,  porphy 
ry,  greenstone,  and  basalt. 

Localities.  Its  foreign  localities  are  very  numerous,  bui 
the  finest  specimens  are  said  to  be  found  in  Cornwall,  Eng. 
and  the  Faroe  Islands. 

V.  S.  East-Haven,  Con. ;  specimens  fine,  and  well  char- 
acterized.— Silliman.  Deerfield  and  Middlefield,  Mass.  ; 
Counties  of  Perry,  Athens,  Hocking,  &c.  Ohio. — Atwater. 
Little  Britain,  Lancaster  County,  Penn. ;  very  beautiful. — 
Conrad.  Several  places  in  Missouri.  Near  Pompton  Plain, 
also  on  Pracknes  Mountain,  and  in  Sussex  County,  N.  J.  ; 
Lynn,  on  Nahant  beach,  Mass. 

Uses.  Chalcedony  bears  a  fine  polish,  and  is  considerably 
esteemed,  under  the  name  of  white  carnelian,  as  an  ornamen- 
tal stone  for  watch  seals,  snuffboxes,  &c. 

The  ancients  engraved  upon  it,  and  there  are  still  extant 
several  master-pieces  of  the  art,  on  this  stone.  One  of  the 
best  is  the  celebrated  Dyonesian  bull,  by  Hyllus. 

Variety  2.     ONYX. 

External  characters.  Colours,  milk  white  and  opake,  and 
bluish  white  and  translucent,  alternating  with  each  other. 

The  onyx,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  is  a 
striped  chalcedonic  stone,  consisting  of  alternate  layers  of 
opake  milk-white  chalcedony,  or  cacholong,  and  of  the  com- 
mon  bluish,  translucent  chalcedony. 

Good  specimens  of  the  onyx  may  often  be  found  at  the 
present  time  among  the  obsolete  and  neglected  articles  which 
are  thrown  aside  in  every  jeweller's  shop. 

Variety  3.     CACHOLONG. 

External  characters.  Colour,  milk  white ;  occurs  in  layers 
with  chalcedony;  or  sometimes  incrusting  or  penetrating  it ; 
opake,  or,  as  it  runs  into  chalcedony,  translucent ;  hardness 
equal  to  quartz ;  lustre  pearly  ;  subject  to  disintegration. 

This  is  merely  a  white  and  opake  variety  of  chalcedony, 
into  which  it  passes  by  insensible  shades.  In  polished  speci- 
mens of  chalcedony,  specks  of  cacholong  are  often  seen. 

Is  it  a  common  mineral  7— What  are  its  uses  ?— What  is  the  appearance 
of  onyx? 


MINERALOGY.  Ill 

Localities.  On  the  borders  of  the  river  Cach,*  in  Bucha- 
ria,  with  chalcedony.  In  the  Faroe  Islands,  Elba,  Spain,  &c. 

U.  S.  Deerfield,  Mass,  (with  chalcedony).  Pittsfield, 
Mass.  Greenstone  rocks,  Con. 

Variety  4.     SARD. 

This  is  chalcedony  of  a  deep  rich,  reddish  brown  colour  ; 
by  transmitted  light  approaching  to  blood  red. — Phillips. 

This  is  most  probably  a  variety  of  carnelian,  but  is  permit- 
ted to  remain  here,  that  the  varieties  forming  the  sardonyx 
may  be  near  each  other. 

Species  6.     SARDONYX.     Rees1  Cyclop. 

External  characters.  Colours,  alternately  bluish,  white 
and  red ;  consisting  of  stripes  or  layers  of  onyx  and  sard. 

Systematic  writers  do  not  agree  as  to  what  constitutes  onyx 
and  sardonyx. 

Jameson  says,  the  onyx  is  formed  of  white  and  brown  stripes 
of  chalcedony. 

Aiken  thinks,  that  two  or  more  plates  of  any  of  the  varie- 
ties of  chalcedony  form  the  onyx. 

Hauy  and  Cleveland  call  that  variety  of  agate,  on  which  the 
different  colours  are  arranged  in  distinct  parallel  stripes  or 
zones,  onyx  agate. 

Phillips  agrees  with  Jameson  in  respect  to  onyx,  and  says 
that  sardonyx  consists  of  sard  and  alternate  layers  of  onyx,  or 
milk-white  chalcedony. 

Hauy  and  Cleveland,  define  sardonyx,  to  be  a  reddish  yel- 
low variety  of  chalcedony,  &c. 

Amidst  this  confusion,  it  appeared  desirable  that  the  ancient 
distinctions  should  be  adopted,  if  they  could  be  ascertained, 
and  it  appears  from  Rees1  Cyclop,  article  Gems,  that  the  stone 
anciently  called  onyx,  was  one  which  agreed  with  the  above 
description  of  that  variety,  and  that  the  sardonyx  consisted  of 
alternate  stripes  of  sard  and  onyx,  or  sard  and  chalcedony,  or 
both. 

This  account  agrees  with  that  ofCalmet,  who  says  that  sar- 
donyx is  sardius  united  to  onyx. 

Onyx  and  sardonyx  have  been  employed  by  ancient,  as  well 
as  modern  artists,  for  executing  those  gems  in  relief,  called 
Cameos;  the  different  colours  enabling  the  artist  to  display 
his  taste  and  skill  with  most  exquisite  effect.  Thus  if  a  white 

*  Cach,  whence  the  name. 


112  INTRODUCTION  TO 

translucent  zone  be  next  to  one  of  sard,  the  red  ground  will 
impart  a  beautiful  flesh-red  colour  to  the  face,  and  if  a  white 
opake  zone  comes  next  above  the  translucent  one,  as  in  the 
onyx,  this  may  be  converted  into  drapery,  &c. 

Many  celebrated  productions  of  this  kind  are  still  preserved, 
and  among  them  there  are  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  the 
following.  The  apotheosis  of  Augustus,  of  two  brown  and 
two  white  layers,  being  an  oval  of  eleven  inches  by  nine. 
The  celebrated  Brunswick  Vase,  representing  Ceres  in  search 
of  Proserpine.  Agrippina  and  her  two  children,  the  stone 
consisting  of  two  layers,  brown  and  white.  The  quarrel  of 
Minerva  with  Neptune,  three  layers.  Venus  on  a  sea-horse, 
surrounded  by  Cupids,  the  layers  being  black  and  white ;  see 
Rees'  Cyclopedia. 

Species  7.     HELIOTROPE.*     BLOODSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  deep  green,  peculiarly  rich 
and  pleasant  to  the  eye,  interspersed  with  blood  red,  or  yellow- 
ish spots,  or  dots;  fracture  conchoidal ;  translucent  on  the 
edges  ;  lustre  glistening  and  resinous  :  gp.  gr.  2.63. 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible,  but  loses  its  colour. 

Composition.  Silex  84;  alumine  7.5;  oxide  of  iron  5. — 
Thomsdorf. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  jasper  by  its  translu- 
cency,  and  from  this  and  most  other  minerals  by  the  richness 
and  peculiarity  of  its  colours. 

It  is  called  bloodstone,  from  the  appearance  of  the  red  spots 
and   sometimes  oriental  jasper,   because  the  finest  varieties 
come  from   the  east.     These   spots   appear   to   be   fine  red 
jasper. 

Localities.  Siberia,  Iceland,  Bohemia,  Faroe  Islands,  Scot- 
land, and  India. 

U.  S.     Near  Troy,  N.  Y.— C   U.  Shepard. 

Uses.  Fine  specimens  are  highly  esteemed  as  an  orna- 
mental stone,  for  seals,  snuff-boxes,  rings,  &c. 

Artists  who  have  engraved  on  this  stone,  have  sometimes 
availed  themselves  of  its  peculiar  arrangement  of  colours  to 
produce  striking  effects.  Thus  there  exists  in  the  royal  col- 
lection at  Paris,  a  bust  of  Christ  on  a  heliotrope,  in  which  the 
drops  of  blood  are  represented  by  the  natural  red  spots  on  the 
stone. 

*  From  two  Greek  words,  signifying  spotted  with  suns. 
How  are  cameos  formed  ?— Why  is  the  heliotrope  called  bloodstone  ? 


MINERALOGY.  ii3 

Variety  1.     PLASMA.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  with  yellow  and 
white  spots;  fracture  conchoidal;  lustre  feebly  resinous; 
translucent ;  harder  than  quartz. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  whitish  and 
opake. 

Composition.  Silex  98.75;  alumine  0.25;  iron  0.5. — 
Klaproth. 

Distinctive,  characters.  The  green  is  not  so  rich  and  plea- 
sant as  that  of  heliotrope.  It  is  darker  than  chrysoprase,  and 
its  translucency  will  distinguish  it  from  jasper. 

Localities.  Italy  and  the  Levant ;  Moravia,  Mount  Olym- 
pus, Prussia,  and  South  America. 

It  was  worn  as  an  ornamental  stone  by  the  Romans,  and  is 
still  esteemed. 

Variety  2.     CHRYSOPRASE. f 

External  characters.  Colour,  apple  green ;  occurs  in  small 
masses;  fracture  conchoidal ;  translucent,  lustre  glimmering; 
hardness  a  little  less  than  that  of  flint :  sp.  gr.  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  opake  and 
white. 

Composition.  Silex  96. 17 ;  lime  0.83  ;  alumine  0.08  ;  oxide 
of  iron  0.08;  oxide  of  nickel  1.0. — Klaproth. 

'  Distinctive  characters.  Its  colour  is  a  little  lighter  and  more 
lively  than  those  of  heliotrope  or  plasma,  and  it  is  without 
spots.  The  lustre  of  prase  is  vitreous,  and  its  fracture  uneven 
and  quartzose. 

Localities.     Lower  Siberia,  in  veins  with  chalcedony. 

U.  S.     Newfane,  N.  H. ;  colour,  apple  green,  amorphous. 

Uses.  It  is  highly  prized  as  a  gem ;  ringstones  of  the  finest 
quality  being  sometimes  sold  for  20  guineas.  Its  high  price 
has  produced  excellent  imitations  in  paste. 

Species  8.     CARNELIAN.^ 

External  characters.  Colours,  red  of  different  shades,  from 
light  flesh-red,  to  dark  blood-red,  passing  into  greenish  brown, 
and  bright  yellow ;  fracture  perfectly  conchoidal ;  lustre, 
glimmering;  translucent  or  semi-transparent;  occurs  in 
rounded  masses,  also  reniform  and  in  thin  plates. 

*  Plasma,  Greek — engraving ;  because  the  ancients  engraved  on  it. 
t  Prom  the  Greek,  a  superior  kind  of  prase. 
$  From  its  resemblance  to  the  colour  of  flesh. 

What  is  the  C9lour  of  chrysoprase 7— What  is  its  use?— Whence  come§ 
«lie  name  carnelian  7 

10* 


114  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  opake  and  loses 
its  colour. 

Composition.  Silex  94  ;  alumine  3.5  ;  lime  1.5  ;  oxide  of 
iron  0.75. — Bindheim. 

Distinctive  characters.  Carnelian  can  only  be  distinguished 
by  its  colours,  and  in  some  specimens  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
whether  it  belongs  to  chalcedony,  agate,  jasper,  or  carnelian. 
Indeed,  in  many  specimens  all  these  varieties  are  blended  to- 
gether, and  insensibly  pass  into  each  other.  Specimens  pro- 
perly called  carnelian,  are  often  spotted  with  opake  jasper, 
striped,  or  clouded  with  cacholong,  &c. 

In  making  carnelian  a  species,  convenience  to  the  learner 
has  been  consulted,  rather  than  the  dictates  of  authority. 

It  is  found  with  chalcedony,  agate,  and  jasper. 

Localities.  India,  Arabia,  Siberia,  and  almost  every  other 
country.  The  finest  comes  from  India. 

U.  S.  Near  Lake  Superior.  At  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
and  at  Herculaneum,  Missouri.  Deerneld,  Mass. 

Uses.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  antique  engraving, 
are  on  carnelian,  and  the  purest  and  most  transparent  stones 
of  this  kind,  are  still  found  among  these  remains  of  ancient 
art.  Hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  ancients  possessed 
the  art  of  improving  the  beauty  of  their  carnelians,  by  some 
process  now  unknown. 

The  number  of  ancient  engraved  carnelians  still  preserved, 
is  very  numerous,  and  hence  it  is  inferred  that  this  stone  was 
preferred  to  all  others  for  this  purpose, 

Species  9.     AGATE. 

External  characters.  Agate  is  an  aggregate  of  a  variety 
of  silicious  substances,  each  of  which  maintains,  more  or  less, 
its  own  character  and  colour  in  the  mass.  The  minerals  of 
which  agate  is  composed,  are  chalcedony,  cacholong,  quartz, 
amethyst,  carnelian,  heliotrope,  jasper,  and  common  opal. 

In  general,  only  two  or  three  of  these  minerals  are  present 
in  a  single  specimen,  and  occasionally  specimens  of  agate  oc- 
cur mostly  composed  of  chalcedony,  which  generally,  indeed, 
is  the  principal  ingredient. 

The  variety  of  colours  which  the  agate  presents,  depends 
chiefly  on  the  number  and  kind  of  the  simple  minerals  which 
compose  it.  Some  specimens  are  dotted  or  clouded  with  red 
carnelian ;  or  striped  like  the  onyx,  alternately  with  chalced- 


Where  is  carnelian  fouud  ?— Is  it  a  common  stone  ?— How  does  agate 
differ  from  carnelian  1 — How  is  agate  formed  ? 


MINERALOGY.  115 

oriy  and  cacholong ;  or  in  some  parts  opake,  with  the  pres- 
ence of  jasper,  &c.  The  varieties  depend  on  the  arrangement 
of  the  colours. 

Variety  I.     RIBBON  AGATE. 

It  consists  of  parallel  layers  of  several  simple  minerals,  as 
chalcedony,  cacholong,  jasper,  &c.  alternating  with  each 
other. 

Variety  2.    BRECCIATED  AGATE. 

This  beautiful  variety  is  composed  of  the  angular  fragments 
of  other  varieties,  united  into  masses  by  a  silicious  cement. 
Locality.     Saxony,  in  a  metallic  vein. 

Variety  3.     FORTIFICATION  AGATE. 
It  consists  of  a  centre  of  one  colour,  for  instance  of  red  car- 
nelian,  surrounded  by  zigzag  angular  lines  of  other  colours, 
as  of  white  cacholong,  chalcedony,  &c. ;  the  whole  resem- 
bling, with  the  help  of  the  imagination,  a  fortification. 

Variety  4.     MOCHA-STONE.     MOSS  AGATE. 

It  is  formed  of  a  translucent  exterior,  with  internal  appear- 
ances like  vegetable  fibres,  as  roots,  moss,  or  trees.  These 
perhaps  were  once  real  vegetables,  changed  to  stone  by  the 
infiltration  of  silicious  particles. 

Dr.  MacCullock,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Phillips,  has  instituted 
an  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  vegetable  appearances  in  the 
varieties  of  agate,  and  from  which  he  concludes  that  they  are 
owing  to  the  existence  of  real  plants  in  the  stone. 

Agates  are  found  in  porphyry,  amygdaloid,  greenstone, 
and  serpentine,  generally  accompanied  with  chalcedony,  car- 
nelian,  &c. 

Localities.  Oberstein,  in  Germany.  Saxony,  Silesia,  Ita- 
ly, Scotland  ;  also  in  many  places  in  England,  and  most  other 
countries. 

The  most  beautiful  are  said  to  come  from  Oberstein,  in 
Germany. 

U.  S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  In  most  of  the  greenstone 
hills,  in  New- Jersey.  East-Haven,  Conn.  Also  at  Wood- 
bury,  Conn.  Deerfield,  Mass.,  composed  of  chalcedony,  car- 
nelian,  sardonyx,  and  cacholong. — Hitchcock.  Also,  in  Geor- 
gia, Missouri,  and  Indiana.  Cumberland,  R.  I.,  beautiful. 

Uses.  The  hardness  of  agate,  and  the  great  variety  and 
beauty  of  its  colours,  have  brought  it  into  extensive  demand, 

What  are  the  principal  varieties  of  agate  7 


116  INTRODUCTION  TO 

both  for  useful  and  ornamental  purposes.     It  is  employed  for 
mortars,  snuff-boxes,  seals,  beads,  &c. 

The  ancients  employed  it  for  engravings,  and  some  fine 
cameos  still  exist  on  this  stone. 

Species  10.     JASPER. 

Jasper,  like  carnelian,  chalcedony,  and  agate,  is  chiefly 
composed  of  silex:  but  it  always  contains  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  iron,  and  hence  instead  of  being  translucent,  like  these 
minerals,  it  is  always  opake. 

This  species  is  subdivided  into  the  following  varieties. 

Variety  1.     COMMON  JASPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  yellow,  and  brown,  of 
different  shades,  often  variously  intermixed ;  also  greenish, 
bluish,  or  nearly  black,  and  sometimes  white;  occurs  in 
amorphous  masses  of  various  dimensions;  lustre  dull,  or 
slightly  resinous;  fracture  conchoidal;  entirely  opake:  sp. 
gr.  2.70. 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible,  but  turns  whitish. 

Composition.  Silex  75;  alumine  0.5;  lime  0.02;  iron  13 
— Kirwan. 

Disti?ictive  characters.  Jasper  is  distinguished  from  car- 
nelian, heliotrope,  hornstone,  and  opal,  by  its  opacity  ;  jaspery 
iron  ore  is  heavier  than  jasper,  and  blackens  under  the  blow 
pipe ;  pitchstone  is  fusible. 

Variety  2.     STRIPED  JASPER.     RIBBON  JASPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  yellow,  green,  gray,  or 
brown,  arranged  in  stripes  or  bands,  sometimes  in  spots  or 
veins. 

Locality.  Beautiful  specimens  are  found  in  the  Uralian 
mountains. 

Variety  3.     EGYPTIAN  JASPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  red,  and  yellow  of 
various  shades,  the  yellow  often  light,  approaching  to  cream 
colour.  These  colours  are  arranged  in  irregular  zones,  or 
in  spots,  or  dentritic  delineations.  It  occurs  in  rounded  or 
ovate  masses,  with  a  brownish  or  nearly  black  and  rough  ex- 
ternal coat. 

This  variety  is  well  characterized  by  the  globular  shapes 
of  the  masses,  and  their  dark,  rough,  exteriors. 

What  are  the  uses  of  agate? — What  is  jasper  chiefly  composed  of? — 
How  does  jasper  differ  from  carnelian  1— What  are  the  principal  varieties 
Of  jasper? 


MINERALOGY.  117 

Localities.  It  is  found  in  vast  abundance,  in  Egypt,  be- 
tween Grand  Cairo  and  the  Red  Sea. 

Variety  4.     PORCELAIN  JASPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  or  bluish  gray,  mixed 
with  red,  or  yellowish,  bluish,  and  brick  red,  variously  inter- 
mixed in  spots,  clouds,  or  dots;  occurs  massive;  structure 
sometimes  slaty;  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal;  lustre 
glistening,  with  the  aspect  of  certain  porcelains;  scratches 
glass;  opake ;  brittle;  softer  than  the  other  varieties:  sp.  gr. 
2.6. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  black  scoria. 

Composition.  Silex  60.75  ;  alumine  27.25;  potash  3.66; 
magnesia  3.00;  oxide  of  iron  2.50. — Rose. 

It  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  coal  mines,  which  have  once 
been  in  a  state  of  combustion ;  and  is  considered  as  shale  al- 
tered by  heat.  In  some  specimens  there  are  evident  marks 
of  vitrification, 

Localities.  Mount  Brasset,  in  France;  and  at  Madely, 
Dudley,  and  Staffordshire,  in  England. 

Variety  5.      RUIN  JASPER. 

External  characters.  Colours  various,  but  generally  the 
ground  is  some  tint  of  brown,  with  different  coloured  delinea- 
tions resembling  ruined  buildings ;  nearly  or  quite  opake. 

When  ground  and  polished,  it  is  sometimes  a  very  beautiful 
mineral. 

Species  1 1.     IIORNSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish  or  yellowish  white, 
also  with  shades  of  green,  or  brown ;  occurs  in  masses,  no- 
dules, and  amorphous  concretions;  transparent,  passing  into 
nearly  opake:  lustre  glimmering  and  somewhat  waxy:  less 
hard  than  quartz  ;  fracture  conchoidal :  sp.  gr.  2.6. 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible,  but  turns  opake. 

Composition.  Silex  71. 3;  alumine  15.3  ;  protoxide  of  iron 
9.3  ;  and  a  trace  of  lime. — Faraday. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  compact  felspar,  and 
petro  silex,  but  these  are  both  fusible.  It  is  less  hard  than 
flint,  and  commonly  of  a  higher  colour.  Jasper  is  opake. 

Hornstone  is  sometimes  pseudomorphous. 

Wood-hornstone,  is  wood  petrified  by  hornstone.  It  has 
the  form  and  texture  of  wood. 


What  is  the  composition  of  jasper  ? — What  are  the  colours  of  hornstone? 
—What  is  its  composition  ? 


118  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Hornstone  is  found  in  veins,  in  primitive  mountains,  also  in 
nodules  in  limestone. 

Localities.  Bavaria,  in  limestone  ;  Sweden,  where  it  forms 
the  basis  of  porphyry,  and  in  most  other  countries. 

U.  S.  Middlebury,  Cornwall,  Bridport,  Orwell,  and  West- 
Haven,  Ver.  Near  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.  also  in  Albany 
county,  at  Bethlehem,  and  at  Bern,  "N.  Y.  West  side  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  containing  carbonate  of  copper,  and  near  Balti- 
more, Md.  West  Goshen,  and  Newlin,  Penn. 

Species  14.     JEFFERSONITE.*     Keating. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  olive  green,  passing 
into  brown  ;  occurs  in  crystalline  masses  ;  translucent  on  the 
edges ;  cleavage  in  several  directions  which  appear  to  be 
incompatible  with  each  other;  streak  light  green;  lustre  on 
the  planes  of  cleavage  semi-metallic,  on  the  cross  fracture 
resinous;  hardness  equal  to  fluor:  sp.  gr.  3.55. 

Chemical  character.     Fusible  into  a  black  globule. 

Composition.  Silex  56;  lime  15.1;  alumine  0.2;  pro- 
toxide of  manganese  13.5;  peroxide  of  iron  10;  oxide  of  zinc 
10. — Keating. 

Localities.  Franklin  iron  works,  N.  J.  in  small  masses, 
imbedded  in  Franklinite. 

Species  15.     JENITE.J     YENITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  or  brownish  black ; 
occurs  amorphous,  and  in  prismatic  crystals;  form  the  four 
sided  prism,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids ;  sometimes 
the  prism  is  rhombic ;  also  in  eight-sided  prisms  terminated 
by  eight-sided  pyramids,  and  in  fibrous  masses;  structure 
foliated;  lustre  glistening  and  resinous,  or  somewhat  metal- 
lic ;  opake ;  scratches  glass,  and  gives  sparks  with  steel :  sp. 
gr.  about  4. 
Fig.  95. 


Figure  95.     A  four-sided  prism,  longitudinally 
striated,  one  of  the  common  forms. 


Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  an  opake  black  globule, 
which  is  magnetic. 

*  In  honour  of  Pres.  Jefferson. 

t  In  commemoration  of  the  battle  of  Jena. 

"VVhence  does  Jeffersonite  obtain  its  name  ? — What  are  the  characters  of 
jenite. 


MINERALOGY.  J19 

Composition.  Silex  30  ;  oxide  of  iron  57.5 ;  lime  12.5. — 
Vauqnelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  Blende,  which  it  resembles  in  co- 
lour, is  infusible;  hornblende,  and  epidote  are  of  less  specific 
gravity. 

Localities.  Elba,  in  two  places,  Siberia  and  Norway.  It 
is  found  with  iron  ore,  augite,  and  epidote.  It  is  a  very  rare 
mineral. 

U.  S.  Chatham,  Conn.  First  shown  to  be  jenite  by  Prof. 
Torrey,  of  New  York. 

Species  16.     CHLOROPAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pistachio  green ;  occurs 
massive;  fracture  conchoidal,  or  earthy ;  translucent  on  the 
edges,  or  opake;  hardness  about  equal  to  that  of  fluor  :  brittle: 
sp.  or.  from  1.7  to  2. 

Composition.  Silex  46 ;  oxide  of  iron  35.30 ;  manganese  2  ; 
alumine  1 ;  water  18;  potash  a  trace. — Brandes. 

This  substance  is  very  remarkable  on  account  of  its  mag- 
netic property.  When  taken  from  the  ground  it  breaks  rea- 
dily into  pieces  resembling  parallelepipeds;  the  upper  end  and 
two  adjoining  lateral  edges,  having  the  opposite  magnetic 
poles. 

Localities.     Hungary,  associated  with  opal. 
Species  17.     GARNET. 

The  garnet  family  includes  several  species  which  are  com- 
posed of  nearly  the  same  elements,  but  in  different  propor- 
tions. All  the  varieties  agree  in  occurring  in  dodecahedral 
crystals,  when  crystallized  at  all. 

Variety  1.     PRECIOUS  GARNET.     ALMANDINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  red,  mixed  more  or  less  with 
violet  or  blue,  sometimes  blood,  or  cherry  red;  occurs  in 
crystals ;  form  the  dodecahedron,  with  its  varieties ;  crystals 
sometimes  flattened  into  tables ;  also  granular ;  structure 
imperfectly  lamellar;  lustre  shining  vitreous;  fracture  con- 
choidal ;  brittle;  translucent,  or  nearly  transparent ;  scratches 
quartz :  sp.  gr.  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  globule,  which 
is  often  magnetic. 

Composition.  Silex  35.75 ;  oxide  of  iron  36 ;  alumine 
27.25  ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.25. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Spinelle  ruby,  which  it  resembles 
in  colour,  is  infusible.  Titanite,  which  often  closely  resem- 

What  are  the  colours  of  garnet? — How  is  garnet  distinguished  from 
spinelle  ruby  ? 


120  INTRODUCTION  TO 

bles  garnet,  is  by  itself  infusible,  and  its  crystalline  form  is 
different.  Hyacinth  and  leucite  are  both  infusible,  the  latter 
is  white. 

Almandine  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  as  granite  and  mica 
slate. 

Localities.  Pegu,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Piedmont,  Siberia, 
Alps,  &c. 

The  most  beautiful  come  from  Sirian,  the  capital  of  Pegu 
and  are  called  Sirian  garnets. 

U.  S.  Hanover,  N.  H.  Bethel  and  Royalton,  Ver.  Go 
shen,  Conn.  Newlin,  Penn. 

The  precious  garnet  is  cut  and  polished  for  jewelry,  and  i* 
much  worn  at  the  present  day  for  ringstones,  breast-pins,  &c. 

When  set,  garnets  are  easily  distinguished  from  spinelle, 
and  red  sapphire,  by  their  more  intense  colour,  turbidness,  arid 
sombre  aspect. 

The  garnet  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancients  as  an  or 
namental  stone,  under  the  name  of  carbuncle.  Some  beauti 
ful  specimens  of  ancient  skill  on  this  stone,  are  still  preserved. 
The  Dog  Sirius,  engraved  on  the  precious  garnet,  is  said  to 
be  the  greatest  master-piece  existing,  in  point  of  deep  work 
and  finish.  It  is  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
Among  the  more  modern  works  on  this  stone  is  a  head  of 
Louis  XIII.  preserved  in  the  National  Museum,  at  Paris. 

In  Bohemia,  garnets  are  obtained  by  a  regular  system  of 
mining,  and  when  cut  and  polished,  constitute  an  article  of 
commerce,  by  which  an  extensive  class  of  people  are  main 
tained. 

After  the  garnets  are  collected,  they  are  passed  through 
vessels  pierced  with  apertures  of  different  diameters,  by  which 
means  they  are  sorted  into  six  different  sizes.  Of  the  largest 
size  it  takes  32  to  weigh  an  ounce;  of  the  next  about  40,  75, 
110,  165,  256,  and  400,  to  an  ounce. 

The  art  of  cutting  and  boring  these  stones  occupies  a  great 
number  of  men. 

The  boring  is  done  with  a  diamond  fixed  to  the  end  of  a 
small  rod  of  metal.  The  garnet  being  properly  placed  and 
fixed,  it  is  bored  by  turning  the  diamond  with  a  bow  and  string. 
A  workman  can  pierce  150  per  day. 

The  large  pyrope  garnets  are  cut  and  polished  on  a  disc 
of  sandstone  with  emery.  Of  these  a  workman  will  finish  30 
per  day. 

What  was  the  precious  garnet  formerly  called  ? — Give  some  account  of 
the  method  of  cutting  ana  polishing  precious  garnets  in  Bohemia. 


MINERALOGY. 


121 


This  art  is  carried  to  very  great  perfection  in  Bohemia. 
[n  the  town  of  Waldkirck,  alone,  there  are  no  less  than  24 
mills,  and  140  master-workmen,  occupied  in  manufacturing 
this  article  of  commerce. — Rees*  Cyclop. 

Variety  2.     COMMON  GARNET. 

External  characters,  Colours,  red,  yellowish  red,  brownish 
red,  or  dark  brown;  occurs  crystallized  and  massive;  form 
the  dodecahedron,  with  its  modifications ;  opake,  or  feebly 
translucent ;  structure  lamellar,  or  granular  ;  fracture  uneven  ; 
lustre  glistening;  brittle  :  less  hard  than  the  precious  garnet: 
sp.  or.  3.69,  to  3.76. 
Fig.  96. 

Fig.  96.  The  dodecahedron  with  rhombic 
faces,  which  is  the  primitive  form,  and  is  the 
most  common  form  under  which  the  garnet  ap- 
pears. 


Fig.  97.    The  same,  with  the  edges  truncated. 


Fig.  98.  A  solid  with  twenty-four  trapezoid- 
al faces,  forming  the  trapezoidal  garnet,  a  form 
under  which  it  sometimes  appears. 


The  garnet  sometimes  has  36,  48,  or  even  60  faces. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  more  ease  than  the 
precious  garnet,  into  a  black,  or  greenish  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  43;  alumine  16;  lime  20;  oxide  of 
iron  16. —  Vauquelin. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  precious  garnet  should 
be  nearly  transparent,  with  almost  40  percent,  of  iron,  while 
the  present  variety  is  opake,  with  only  16  percent,  of  the  same 
metal. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  precious  garnet 
in  being  opake,  darker  coloured,  more  easily  fusible,  and  not 
so  hard. 


What  are  the  colours  and  forms  of  the  common  garnet  ? 
11 


122  INTRODUCTION  TO 

h  is  mostly  found  in  primitive  rocks. 

Localities.  The  common  garnet  is  found  in  almost  every 
section  of  country  where  primitive  rocks  occur.  Its  foreign 
localities  are  too  numerous  to  mention. 

U.  S.  Haddam,  Chatham,  Munroe,  Bolton,  Lyme,  and 
Washington,  Conn.  Newbury,  Bedford,  Plainfield,  and  Cum- 
mington,  Vt.  Interior  of  North  Carolina,  as  large  as  a  child's 
head. — Maclure.  Barren  hills,  Penn.  in  dodecahedrons  with 
truncated  edges,  sometimes  five  inches  in  diameter. — Mor- 
ton. Brunswick  and  Topsham,  Maine.  New  Fane,  Vt. 
Hanover,  N.  H.  Carlisle,  Mass.  Also,  at  Boxborough, 
Franklin  Furnace,  N.  J. 

Variety  3.     PYROPE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  red,  often  dark  blood-red, 
with  a  tinge  of  yellow  by  the  transmitted  light;  occurs  in 
rounded  angular  grains,  but  never  in  crystals ;  transparent,  or 
translucent;  lustre  splendent :  vitreous;  fracture  cone hoidal ; 
scratches  quartz  :  sp.  gr.  3.9. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  glass ;  tinges 
borax  green. 

Composition,  Silex  40;  alumine  28.5;  magnesia  10; 
oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  16.75. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Differs  from  the  other  varieties,  in 
never  occurring  in  crystals.  When  polished,  its  yellowish 
tinge  and  greater  transparency  distinguish  it  from  almandine. 

It  is  found  in  serpentine  and  alluvial  deposites. 

Localities.  Saxony,  and  Bohemia ;  also  at  Ely,  in  Scot- 
land. 

U.  S.  Chester  county,  Pa.  Its  colour  is  fine  dark  red. — 
Lea. 

Werner  considered  the  present  variety  as  nearly  allied  to 
the  pyrope  of  the  ancients,  mentioned  by  the  same  name  by 
Pliny  and  Ovid. 
w  Variety  4.     GROSSULAR.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  of  several  shades ; 
occurs  in  crystals  of  the  same  form  as  common  garnet; 
translucent;  faces  of  the  crystals  smooth  and  shining :-sp. 
gr.  3.37. 

Composition.  Silex  44;  alumine  8.50 ;  lime  33.50;  ox- 
ide of  iron  12. — Klaproth. 

Locality..     Siberia. 

*  French,  Gooseberry,  from  its  green  colour  1 

In  what  kind  of  rock  is  the  common  garnet  found  1 — What  is  pyrope  1— 
What  is  grossular,  and  why  is  it  so  called  ? 


MINERALOGY  123 

Variety  5.     APLOMB. 

External  characters.  Colours,  deep  brown,  or  orange 
brown  ;  occurs  in  rhombic  dodecahedrons,  the  faces  of  which 
are  striated  parallel  to  their  shorter  diagonals ;  fracture  un- 
even ;  scratches  quartz  ;  nearly  opake :  sp.  gr.  3.44. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  black  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  40;  alumine  20;  lime  14.5;  oxide 
of  iron  14.5  ;  oxide  of  manganese  2. — Laugier. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  direction  of  its  striae  differs 
from  those  of  common  garnet,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  less ; 
in  other  respects  they  a  re  much  alike. 

Localities.     Siberia,  and  probably  in  Saxony. 

Variety  6.      MANGANESIAN  GARNET. 

External  characters.  Colours,  deep  hyacinth,  or  brown- 
ish red;  occurs  in  dodecahedral  crystals  and  massive;  frac- 
ture imperfectly  conchoidal ;  lustre  vitreous. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  alone  ;  with  borax  and  ni- 
tre, gives  a  violet  globule. 

Composition.  Silex  35;  alumine  14  ;  oxide  of  manganese 
35  ;  oxide  of  iron  14. — Klaproth. 

It  is  singular  that  a  substance  differing  so  much  in  com- 
position from  common  garnet,  should  take  its  form  and  co- 
lour. 

Locality.     Franconia. 

U.  S.  Nine  miles  from  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  in  masses 
from  1  pound  to  100  pounds. — Jessup.  Corlaer's  Hook,  N.  Y. 
Jones'  Eddy,  near  Bath,  Maine. 

Variety  1.     MELANITE 

External  characters.  Colours,  black  or  grayish  black  ;  oc- 
curs in  rhombic  dodecahedrons  ;  often  with  truncated  edges  ; 
fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining  and  resinous; 
opake :  sp.  gr.  3.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  brilliant  black  globule. 

Composition.  Silex  35;  alumine  6;  lime  32;  oxide  of 
iron  25  ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.4. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Near  Vesuvius  in  Italy.  Bohemia,  and  in  the 
iron  mines  of  Lapmark. 

U.  S.  Germantown,  Penn,  in  gneiss  ;  also,  at  Morris' 
Hill,  near  the  Philadelphia  water  works. 

What,  is  aplome  ? — How  does  the  manganesian  garnet  differ  from  the 
common  one? 


124  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  8.    COLOPIIONITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blackish  or  yellowish  brown, 
brownish  black,  or  greenish :  occurs  in  grains  or  in  masses, 
composed  of  grains  slightly  adhering)  also  in  rhombic  dode- 
cahedrons ;  opake  or  slightly  translucent ;  aspect  resinous, 
and  often  beautifully  iridiscent :  sp.  gr.  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  black  ;  with  bo- 
rax gives  a  green  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  38  ;  lime  29  ;  alumine  6 ;  protoxide 
of  iron  25.20;  water  0.33. — Seybert. 

This  specimen  was  from  Willsborouefh,  N.  Y. 

Localities.  Arundel,  in  Norway,  in  a  bed  of  magnetic 
iron ;  also  in  Ceylon  and  Italy. 

U.  S.  Willsborough,  N.  Y.  It  forms  a  vein  five  feet  wide, 
in  a  hornblende  rock,  and  is  so  plentiful,  that  by  blasting,  hun- 
dreds of  tons  may  be  obtained.  It  is  easily  distinguishable 
from  all  other  minerals,  by  the  variety  and  brilliancy  of  its 
colours,  and  by  its  peculiar  resinous  aspect.  It  is  composed 
of  small  distinct  concretions,  which  may  often  be  separated, 
even  by  shaking  it  in  the  hand. — Hall. 

Variety  9.     TOPAZOLITE.! 

External  characters.  Colours,  topaz  yellow,  or  greenish  ; 
occurs  in  dodecahedrons;  transparent  or  translucent. 

Composition.  Silex  37  ;  alumine  2  ;  lime  29  ;  glucine  4  ; 
iron  25  ;  manganese  2. — Bonvoisin. 

Locality.     Mussa,  in  Piedmont. 

Species  18.     CINNAMON  STONE.J 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  brownish  red,  yellow- 
ish brown,  and  orange  ;  occurs  in  fissile  masses,  and  in  splin- 
tery fragments:  transparent  or  translucent;  fracture  imper- 
fectly conchoidal ;  lustre  shining,  resinous  ;  sometimes  occurs 
in  dodecahedral  crystals ;  scratches  quartz  slightly  :  sp.  gr.  3.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  ebullition,  into  a  dark 
green  translucent  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  38. 8;  alumine  21. 2;  lime  31.25  ;  ox- 
ide of  iron  6.6. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.     The  fusible   varieties    of  garnet 


*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  resir 
t  From  its  being  similar  in  colour 


in  coloured. 

to  topaz. 
From  its  colour  being  that  of  cinnamon. 


What  is  colophonite,  and  why  is  it  so  called? — What  is  topazolite? — 
Whence  comes  the  name  cinnamon  stone? — What  is  the  composition  of 
cinnamon  sto*ne  ? 


MINERALOGY. 


125 


melt  into  dark  opake  globules,  and  are  generally  crystallized 
The  present  species  is  translucent  when  melted,  and  is  rarely 
(bund  in  crystals. 

Localities.     Ceylon,  in  the  sands,  and  in  Brazil. 

U.  S.  Boxborough,  Mass. — Nuttall. 

Variety  1.   ROMANZOVITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  brownish  black,  or 
black:  occurs  compact  or  in  crystalline  plates,  which  indicate 
the  dodecahedron  ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  oily ;  scratches 
glass;  brittle;  streak  yellow:  sp.  gr.  3.60. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  dark  globule. 

Composition.  Silex  41.2;  alumine  24.1;  lime  24.8 ;  ox- 
ide of  iron  7.02 ;  magnesia  and  oxide  of  manganese  0.92  loss 
1.98. — Nordenskiold. 

Localities.     Kimito,  in  Finland,  in  limestone. 

Species  19.  IDOCRASE.*  VESUVIAN.J 
External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  or  brownish  green, 
reddish  yellaw,  or  blackish  brown  ;  occurs  massive,  but  more 
commonly  in  crystals;  form,  the  four-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  four  sided  pyramids,  or  it  sometimes  assumes  an  eight- 
sided  prism,  by  truncation  of  the  lateral  edges  of  the  four-sided 
prism ;  the  angles  of  the  summits  being  also  truncated  ;  cleav- 
age parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  the  prism ;  cross  fracture 
small  conchoidal ;  scratches  felspar ;  transoarent  or  translu- 
cent: sp.  gr.  3. 
Fig.  99. 


dth 


Fig.  99.     A  right  four-sided  prism,  wi 
square  base.     This  is  the  primitive  form. 


Fig.  100.  The  four-sided  prism  with  the  late- 
ral edges  truncated,  forming  an  eight-sided  prism, 
\vith  unequal  sides.  The  edges  of  the  summits 
are  also  truncated. 


*  Idocrase,  a  mixed  figure,  in  allusion  to  its  form. 
t  Vesuvian,  because  it  was  found  at  Vesuvius. 

Does  idocrase  occur  in  crystals,  or  in  masses  ? — What  are  the  forrna  of 
its  crystals? 

11* 


126  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  ebullition,  into  a  trans 
lucent  glass. 

Composition.  (That  of  Vesuvius,)  silex  35.50;  alumine 
33  ;  lime  22.25;  oxides  of  iron  7.50. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Pargasite,  which  it  resembles,  has 
not  its  translucency,  and  fuses  into  a  white  enamel.  Grossular, 
the  variety  of  garnet  which  it  most  resembles  in  colour,  oc- 
curs in  dodecahedrons.  Olivine  and  chrysolite  are  infusible. 
Epidote,  which  resembles  it  in  crystalline  form  and  colour, 
wants  its  transparency,  and  is-only  fusible  in  part. 

It  is  found  both  in  volcanic  and  in  primitive  rocks. 

Localities.  Vesuvius  arid  Etna,  Siberia,  Piedmont,  St. 
Gothard,  Norway. 

U.  S.  Worcester,  Mass,  in  four-sided  prisms,  of  a  brown 
colour. — Meade.  Salisbury,  Conn. — Silliman.  Cumberland, 
R.  I.— Robinson.  Amity,  N.  Y.  Newton,  N.  J. 

Uses.  At  Naples  it  is  cut  into  ring-stones,  and  sold  under 
various  names,  as  chrysolite,  hyacinth,  &c. — Jameson. 

Variety  1.     EGERAN. 

External  characters.  Colour,  deep  brown;  occurs  in  crys- 
tals in  the  form  of  right  four-sided  prisms,  with  the  lateral 
edges  sometimes  truncated;  crystals  deeply  striated;  trans- 
lucent; lustre  shining,  vitreous.  It  also  occurs  massive,  com- 
posed of  prismatic  concretions ;  scratches  felspar :  sp.  gr.  3.29. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible,  into  a  blebby  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  41;  alumine  22;  lime  22;  iron  6; 
manganese  2 ;  potash  1. — Borkowski. 

Locality.     Eger,  in  Bohemia,  hence  the  name. 

Species  20.     GEHLENITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  gray,  with  a  greenish  or  yel- 
lowish tinge:  occurs  in  rectangular  crystals,  nearly  in  form 
of  a  cube,  also  tabular;  surfaces  rough  and  dull;  nearly 
opake ;  fracture  uneven,  splintery ;  scratches  glass ;  structure 
imperfectly  foliated ;  crystals  commonly  aggregated  :  sp.  gr.  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Suffers  no  change  without  a  flux. 
With  borax,  melts  into  a  brownish  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  29.5;  alumine  14.5;  lime  27.55; 
oxide  of  iron  12.2;  water  6;  magnesia  0.25;  potash  and 
loss  10. — Fuchs. 

Locality.     Fassa  in  the  Tyrol. 

*  After  the  chemist,  Gehlen. 

•    What  is  the  use  of  idocrase  ?— What  is  the  appearance  of  gehlenite,  and 
whence  comes  its  name  ? 


MINERALOGY.  127 

Species  21.     PREHNITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  pale  green,  or  greenish 
white;  occurs  in  crystalline  masses  of  a  fibrous  radiating 
structure;  also  in  distinct  crystals,  with  four,  six,  or  eight 
sides,  and  of  a  tabular  form ;  translucent ;  in  thin  pieces  trans- 
parent; fracture  splintery;  lustre  shining;  scratches  glass: 
sp.  gr.  from  2.6.  to  3.1. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  intumescence,  into  a 
pale  porous  glass.  Electric  by  heat. 

Composition.  Silex  48.8;  alumine  30.33;  lime  18.33; 
oxide  of  iron  5.66 ;  water  1.88. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Beryl,  which  it  resembles  in  colour, 
is  much  harder  and  infusible;  stilbite  never  has  the  green 
tinge  of  prehnite.  Zeolite  forms  a  jelly  with  acids,  and  from 
felspar  it  differs  entirely  in  structure. 

Prehnite,  though  always  the  result  of  crystallization,  often 
appears  massive  in  consequence  of  the  close  and  confused 
aggregation  of 'its  crystals.  It  generally  consists  on  one  side, 
of  tuberous,  warty  excrescences,  composed  of  minute  crystals, 
with  shining  faces,  or  of  granular  concretions  composed  of 
radiating  fibrous  crystals,  joined  together.  The  other  side  of 
the  mass  or  crust,  is  generally  corroded  and  black. 

Variety  1.    KAUPHOLITE.| 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  yellowish  white; 
occurs  crystallized  in  small  rhombic  tables;  transparent; 
lustre  glistening  and  pearly. 

Fig.  101. 

Fig.  101.     A  rhomboidal  plate,  the  common 
form. 


Composition.  Silex  48;  alumine  24;  lime  23;  oxide  of 
iron  4. —  Vauquelin. 

Prehnite  is  found  chiefly  in  secondary  rocks,  as  amygdaloid, 
greenstone,  hornblende,  rock,  &c. 

Localities.  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Col.  Prehn  ;  Tuscany,  Tyrol,  many  places  in  Scot- 
land, and  in  England. 

*  In  honour  of  Col.  Prehn,  its  discoverer, 
t  From  the  Greek,  signifying  a  light  stone. 

What  is  the  colour  and  appearance  of  prehnite? 


128  INTRODUCTION  TO 

V.  S.  Scotch  Plains,  Paterson,  and  near  Newark,  N.  J. 
At  the  latter  place,  masses  are  found  near  a  foot  in  diameter. 
—  Torrey.  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  New-Haven,  Berlin,  Wood- 
bury,  Simsbury,  Granby,  Farmington,  Hartford,  and  Windsor, 
Conn.  Brookfield,  Watertown,  and  Charlestown,  Mass.  At 
the  latter  place,  in  hexagonal  tables. —  Waterhouse.  Bellows 
Falls,  Ver 

Species  22.     STILBITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  yellowish, 
brownish,  orange  red  and  brick  red;  occurs  crystallized  in 
the  form  of  four-sided  prisms,  which  is  the  primitive  form ; 
also  variously  modified  by  truncation.  Sometimes  it  is  com- 
pressed into  the  form  of  a  table,  and  sometimes  it  assumes 
the  form  of  a  six-sided  prism.  It  terminates  in  four-sided 
pyramids,  often  with  truncated  angles  ;  translucent  or  trans- 
parent; structure  foliated  in  one  direction;  yields  to  the  knife  ; 
lustre  pearly ;  crystals  sometimes  slender  and  fasciculated; 
sp.  gr.  2.5. 
Fig.  102. 

Fig.  102.  A  four-sided  prism,  terminated  by  four- 
sided  pyramids,  the  faces  of  which  are  set  on  the 
angles  of  the  prism.  This  is  a  common  form. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  blebby,  colourless 
glass. 

Composition.  Silex  50.24  ;  alumine  29.3 ;  lime  9.46  ; 
water  10. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  Zeolite,  which  it  resembles,  forms 
a  jelly  with  acids,  and  becomes  electric  by  heat.  Prehnite  is 
harder  than  stilbite,  and  has  not  its  pearly  lustre.  Stilbite  is 
foliated,  which  is  not  the  case  with  prehnite. 

Stilbite  is  found  in  the  fissures  of  primitive  rocks.  It  is  also 
associated  with  zeolite,  chabasie,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  in 
secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Dauphiny,  of  a  pale  straw-colour.  Arendal, 
in  Norway.  Iceland.  Scotland.  Giant's  Causeway,  and  in 
the  Faroe  Islands. 

U.  S.  Woodbury,  Conn.  Deerfield,  Mass,  associated  with 
chabasie. — Hitchcock  Scotch  Plains,  N.  J.  in  four-sided 

*  A  peculiar  lustre. 
What  are  the  colours  and  crystalline  forms  of  stilbite. 


MINERALOGY.  123 

prisms,  and  six-sided  tables. — Pierce.  Torrey.  West  Farms, 
N.  Y.  pale  and  deep  red.  Had! y me,  Conn.  Bellows  Falls, 
Vt.  Often  in  the  greenstone  range  through  Conn. 

Species  22.     HEULANDITE.     FOLIATED  ZEOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white; 
brownish,  red,  and  sometimes  colourless;  occurs  crystallized 
in  the  form  of  a  right  oblique-angled  prism,  (two  of  its  oppo- 
sed lateral  planes  being  longer  than  the  other  two,)  generally 
modified  by  truncation;  faces  bright  and  shining;  lustre 
pearly  ;  translucent  or  transparent ;  brittle. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  phosphorescence  into 
a  porous  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  52.6;  alumine  17.5;  lime  9 ;  water 
18.5. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  does  not  form  a  jelly  with  acids, 
like  zeolite.  Its  crystalline  form  differs  from  that  of  stilbite. 

Localities.  Faroe  Isles,  GianTs  Causeway;  Tyrol  and 
Norway. 

This  mineral  was  considered  as  a  variety  of  zeolite,  by 
Werner  and  Jameson,  and  a  variety  of  stilbite,  by  Hauy. 

U.  S.  Chesterfield,  Mass,  associated  with  stilbite  andcha- 
basie.  Distinguished  by  its  superior  pearly  lustre.  Chester, 
Mass.  Peter's  Point,  Nova  Scotia.  Hadlyme,  Conn. 

Species  24.     ZEOLITE.     MEZOTYPE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  sometimes  shaded  with 
yellow,  gray,  or  red ;  occurs  in  masses  and  in  crystals ;  form 
the  four-sided  prism,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids  ;  but 
more  commonly  it  is  found  in  masses  composed  of  radiating 
fibres,  or  in  fasciculated  minute  crystals  of  a  stellular  aspect. 
Sometimes  the  crystals  are  so  broad  as  to  give  a  foliated  ap- 
pearance; fracture  splintery,  lustre  pearly  or  silky:  translu- 
cent, sometimes  nearly  transparent ;  scratches  carbonate  of 
lime :  sp.  gr.  .2. 
Pig.  103. 


Fig.  103.     Radiated  zeolite. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  intumescence  and  phos- 
phorescence, into  a  spongy  enamel.     Phillips  says,  fusible 

What  are  the  colours  of  Heulandite?— What  are  the  colours  of  zeolite? 
•What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  zeolite? 


130  INTRODUCTION  TO 

without  intumescence.  It  forms  a  jelly  with  nitric  acid.  The 
proportion  of  acid  should  be  small. 

Composition.  Silex  54.24;  alumine  29.3;  lime  9.46; 
water  10. —  Vauquelin.  Tennant  found  17,  and  Gehlen  15 
per  cent,  of  soda.  Possibly  these  gentlemen  analyzed  differ- 
ent minerals. 

Distinctive  characters.  In  its  radiated  structure,  zeolite 
closely  resembles  prehnite,  but  differs  from  it  in  colour,  hard- 
ness, and  lustre.  Stilbite  is  foliated.  Chabasie  is  crystallized 
in  cubes,  and  from  all  these,  as  well  as  from  analcime,  har- 
motome,  and  heulandite,  it  may  be  known  by  its  forming  a 
jelly  with  nitric  acid. 

Zeolite  is  often  found  in  thin  fibrous  coats  investing  other 
minerals. 

U.  S.  Cheshire,  and  Washington,  Conn.  Peter's  Point, 
Nova  Scotia. 

Variety  1.      MESOLITE.     NEEDLESTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  or  grayish  white,  or 
colourless  ;  occurs  in  long  slender  prisms,  terminated  by  four- 
sided  pyramids;  crystals  often  radiate  from  a  centre;  lustre 
pearly ;  resembles  zeolite,  except  in  the  distinctness  and  length 
of  the  crystals. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  opake,  curls,  and  then 
melts  into  a  porous  bead. 

Composition.  Silex  45.8  ;  alumine  26.50 ;  lime  9.87  ;  soda 
5.40;  water  12.30. — Berzelius. 

Localities.  Pargas,  in  Finland.  Iceland,  Faroe  Islands, 
and  in  the  Tyrol. 

Variety  2.     NATROLITE. 

Exteral  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white,  or 
reddish  brown,  disposed  in  alternate  zones  around  the  centre; 
occurs  in  mammillary  masses  composed  of  diverging  fibres ; 
lustre  pearly  or  dull:  sp.  gr.  2.2. 

Chemical  character.  Before  the  blow  pipe;  behaves  like 
zeolite. 

Composition.  Silex  48;  alumine  24.25;  soda  16.5;  water 
9;  oxide  of  iron  1.75. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Near  the  lake  of  Constance.  In  Scotland,  and 
in  Suabia. 

Variety  3.     MEALY  ZEOLITE. 

External  characters.     Colours,  white,  yellowish  gray,  or 

How  is  this  mineral  distinguished  from  others  ? — What  are  the  varieties 
of  zeolite  7 


MINERALOGY.  13 

reddish ;  occurs  in  dull  friable  masses,  or  in  thin  coats  on  other 
minerals;  fracture  earthy. 

It  is,  probably,  zeolite  in  a  decomposing  state. 

Variety  4.     THOMSONITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white  and  translucent ;  in 
thin  pieces  transparent;  occurs  in  radiating  fibrous  masses, 
in  the  cavities  of  which  are  sometimes  formed  crystals,  in  form 
of  a  right  prism,  with  square  bases. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  swells,  curls,  and  be- 
comes snow  white,  and  opake,  and  loses  13  per  cent,  of  its 
weight. 

Composition.  Silex  36.8;  alumine  31.36;  lime  15.4; 
magnesia  G. 2;  peroxide  of  iron  0.6  ;  water  13. — Thomson. 

Phillips  has  made  a  species  of  Thomsonite,  but  it  is  evi- 
dently a  variety  of  zeolite. 

Zeolite  is  found  in  secondary  rocks,  as  basalt,  greenstone, 
porphyry,  and  amygdaloid.  It  occurs  in  small  masses,  or 
investing  these  minerals  in  thin  coats.  Sometimes  it  runs  in 
veins,  but  is  seldom  more  than  half  an  inch,  or  an  inch  thick. 
It  is  associated  with  prehnite,  stilbite,  analcime,  calcareous 
spar,  &c. 

Localities.  Scotland,  England,  Faroe  Islands,  Brittany, 
Tyrol,  &c. 

V.  S.  Near  New-Haven,  Conn,  in  secondary  greenstone. 
— Silliman.  Paterson  and  Scotch  Plains,  N.  J.  in  four-sided 
prisms.  De-erfield,  Mass,  in /radiated  masses. — Hitchcock. 
At  Jones'  Falls,  Md.  Near  Philadelphia.  Near  Baltimore, 
Md.  in  quadrangular  prisms. — Gilmor.  Peter's  Point,  Nova 
Scotia. 

Species  25.     WERNERITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  gray,  olive  green, 
bluish  green,  and  grayish  white  ;  occurs  massive  and  crystal- 
lized in  eight-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids ; 
lustre  glistening  or  shining;  structure  foliated;  translucent 
or  transparent ;  crystals  often  long  and  deeply  striated  ;  the 
massive  is  composed  of  parallel  or  diverging  crystals ;  frac- 
ture splintery ;  fragments  angular  ;  scratches  glass :  sp.  gr. 
2.25. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  intumescence,  into  a 
white,  shining  enamel. 

*  In  honour  of  Dr.  Thomson. 
What  are  the  colours  of  Wernerite? 


i32  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.  Silex  40;  alumine  34;  lime  16;  oxide  of 
iron  8;  oxide  of  manganese  1.5. — John. 

Localities.     Buoen,  in  Norway.      Ulrica,  in  Sweden. 
Variety  1.     SCAPOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  white,  greenish  while, 
yellowish,  and  greenish  gray;  occurs  massive  and  crystal- 
lized in  four  or  eight-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four-sided 
pyramids ;  primitive  form,  a  right  four-sided  prism  ;  cleavage 
parallel  to  the  sides,  terminal  planes,  and  both  diagonals  of  a 
square  prism;  crystals  long  and  often  striated;  sometimes 
acicular  and  radiating,  but  more  often  broad,  and  collected 
into  groups  or  masses ;  structure  foliated;  translucent;  lustre 
pearly  ;  scratches  glass :  sp.  gr.  2.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  intumescence,  into  a 
shining  white  enamel.  Liable  to  decomposition,  by  which 
it  becomes  dull  and  efflorescent. 

Composition.  Silex  45  ;  alumine  33  :  lime  17.6 ;  potash 
0.5;  soda  1.5;  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  1. — Laugier. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  harder  and  less  easily  fusible 
than  zeolite,  or  stilbite,  nor  is  it,  like  these,  soluble  in  acids. 
Its  crystalline  form  and  structure  will  distinguish  it  from  preh- 
nite  and  analcime.  Apophyllite  separates  into  flakes  in 
acid,  which  scapolite  does  not. 

Localities.  Arendal,  in  Norway,  with  oxide  of  iron.  In 
various  places  in  Sweden  and  Greenland. 

U.  S.  Bolton,  Mass.,  colour  white,  crystals  two  inches  long, 
form  four-sided  prisms. — Meade.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  At 
Cold  Spring,  and  at  West  Point,  New- York. 

The  external  characters  of  Wernerite  and  scapolite  are 
very  nearly  the  same,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion 
of  alkali  in  the  Wernerite,  there  is  nearly  an  identity  of  com- 
position. Cleaveland  has  blended  the  descriptions  of  both 
under  scapolite.  Jameson  and  Phillips  make  them  separate 
species.  The  alkali  has  not  been  thought  a  sufficient  reason 
for  separating  them,  and  scapolite  has  therefore  been  placed 
as  a  variety  of  Wernerite,  until  further  analysis  shall  deter- 
mine its  place. 

Species  26.     ZOISITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray  or  grayish  yellow,  or 
orown ;  occurs  in  rhombic  prisms,  which  are  compressed  and 
deeply  striated  longitudinally;  terminations  commonly  incom- 
plete. It  also  occurs  massive;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides 

What  are  the  colours  and  chemical  characters  of  scapolite  ? — How  is 
this  mineral  distinguished  1 — What  is  zoisite  ? 


MINERALOGY.  133 

of  a  right  rhombic  prism  ;  translucent ;  lustre  pearly :  scratch- 
es glass. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  at  first  into  a  yellowish 
transparent  glass,  but  finally  into  a  vitreous  scoria ;  with  bo- 
rax swells,  and  melts  into  a  vitreous  scoria. 

Composition.  Silex  45;  alumine  29;  lirne  21;  oxide  of 
iron  2.4. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  epidote  and  tremolite : 
but  the  first  gives  a  colored  glass  with  borax,  and  the  second 
melts  into  a  white  enamel. 

Localities.     Carinthia,  Frariconia,  Ba\Taria,  and  Tyrol. 

U.  S.  East  Marlborough,  in  regular  tetrahedral  prisms. 
Pittsfield,  Mass.  Near  Philadelphia,  Penn.  Woodstock,  Vt. 

Species  27.     EPIDOTE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish,  bluish,  or  black- 
ish green;  occurs  massive,  granular,  and  crystallized  in  four, 
six,  eight,  or  twelve-sided  prisms:  lustre  of  the  massive,  glim- 
mering, of  the  crystals,  shining;  translucent  or  opake;  frac- 
ture of  the  massive,  uneven  and  splintery;  crystals  generally 
grouped,  and  the  crystallization  often  confused ;  scratches 
glass:  sp.  gr.  3.45. 
Fig.  104. 


Fig.  104.  A  four-sided  prism  with  truncated  edges, 
and  terminated  by  two  faces  standing  on  the  truncated 
angles. 


Fig.  105. 


Fig.  105.  A  four-sided  prism,  also  truncated, 
and  terminated  by  four  planes  standing  obliquely 
on  the  lateral  planes. 


Fig.  106.     A  six-sided  prism,  with  unequal  lat- 
eral planes,  and  terminated  by  two  unequal  faces. 


What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  zoisite  1 — What  are  the  colours  of 
epidote  1 

12 


134  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  black,  the  sharp  angles  only 
being  fusible  into  a  shining  glass.  With  borax  slowly  fusible 
into  a  greenish  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  37',  aJumine  21;  lime  15;  oxide  of 
iron  24;  oxide  of  manganese  15. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  actynolite,  buttbclat- 
ler  turns  grayish  white,  under  the  blow  pipe.  This  difference 
will  always  distinguish  these  two  minerals,  provided  crystal- 
line fragments  of  each  be  taken.  Hornblende  is  easily  fusible 
into  a  black  shining  globule.  Idocrase  is  fusible  into  a  trans- 
lucent yellowish  glass.  Sahlite  whitens  and  becomes  glazed 
with  a  yellowish  glass.  These  differences  will  distinguish 
the  present  species. 

Variety  1.     MANGANESIAN  EPIDOTE. 

External  characters. — Colours,  reddish  brown,  or  violet ; 
occurs  in  small  prismatic  crystals,  closely  aggregated  into 
groups  ;  opake ;  yields  to  the  knife. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ease  into  a  black  glass  ; 
with  borax  into  a  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  It  contains  about  12  per  cent,  of  oxide  of 
manganese. 

Localities.     Piedmont,  in  gneiss,  with  quartz  and  asbestos. 

Variety  2.     GRANULAR  EPIDOTE.     SKORZA. 

.  External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  green;  occurs  in 
grains  of  various  sizes,  and  appears  to  be  common  epidote  dis- 
integrated and  reduced  to  grains  by  attrition. 

Composition.  Silex  43.0;  alumine  21  ;  lime  14;  oxide 
of  iron  16.5;  oxide  of  manganese  0.25. 

Localities.  The  borders  of  the  river  Arangas,  in  Transyl- 
vania. 

Epidote  is  found  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  both  dissemina- 
ted and  in  veins. 

Localities.  Isere,  in  France.  Chamouni,  in  the  Alps. 
Arendal  in  Norway,  crystals  an  inch  in  diameter.  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  &c. 

U.  S.  Middlebury  and  Chester,  Vt.  Near  Lake  George, 
N.  Y.  Cumberland,  R.  I.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  Blue  Ridge, 
Va.  Milford,  Con.  Litch field  and  Washington,  Con.;  also 
at  Haddam,  Saybrook,  and  Tolland,  Con.  Near  Bostbn, 
Brighton,  Dedham,  &c.  Mass.  Also  at  Newbury,  in  large 

What  are  the  chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of,epidote  ? — What  are 
the  varieties  of  epidote  7— Is  epidote  a  rare,  or  a  common  mineral? 


MINERALOGY.  135 

crystals. —  Webster.     Franconia,  N.  H.     Near  New  York; 
also  in  Westchester,  and  in  the  Highlands,  N.  Y. 

Species  28.     AXINITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  violet  brown,  green,  gray, 
yellow,  and  white;  occurs  in  crystals,  the  form  of  which  is  an 
oblique  rhomb,  or  four-sided  prism,  so  compressed  that  the 
edges  appear  sharp  like  the  edge  of  an  axe;  angles  often 
truncated :  lustre  splendent ;  fracture  uneven ;  fragments  an- 
gular; translucent  or  transparent;  occurs  also  massive; 
scratches  glass :  sp.  gr.  3.2  to  3.30. 
Fig.  107.  Fig.  108. 


Figs.  107  and  108,  present  the  common 
forms  of  these  crystals. 


Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  dark  greenish  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  44  ;  alumine  18;  lime  19;  oxide  of 
iron  14:  oxide  of  manganese  4. —  Vauquelin. 

The  crystals  are  generally  striated,  except  the  greenish  va- 
riety, which  is  the  most  perfect. 

The  same  crystal  is  sometimes  of  various  colours,  and  has 
various  degrees  of  transparency. 

Some  crystals,  and  particularly  the  violet-coloured,  becordfe 
electric  by  heat. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  is  rather  a  rare  mineral. 

Localities.  Thum*  in  Saxony.  In  the  Pyrenees.  Mount 
Atlas.  Arendal,  in  Norway.  France.  Cornwall,  Eng. 

Species  29.     LAPIS  LAZULI. 

External  characters.  Colour,  azure  blue  of  various  tints, 
but  always  intense  and  beautiful ;  occurs  massive;  structure 
fine-grained  and  compact;  lustre  glimmering ;  fracture  une- 
ven :  scratches  glass;  opake  or  translucent  on  the  edges:  sp. 
gr.  2.9. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  a  glassy 
globule,  at  first  bluish,  but  soon  becomes  white.  f  With  borax 
forms  a  clear  glass. 

Composition.     Silex  49;  magnesia  2;  alumine  11;  lime 

*  Jameson  calls  it  thumerstone  on  this  account. 

What  are  the  colours  of  axinite  1 — What  is  the  colour  of  lapis  lazuli  7 — 
What  is  the  composition  of  this  mineral  ? 


136  INTRODUCTION  TO 

16;  potasn  and  soda  8;  oxide  of  iron  4;  sulphuric  acid  2.— 
Gmelin. 

Klaproth  found  neither  soda  nor  potash.  Clement  found 
soda  23.2,  and  sulphur  3.1. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  peculiar  and  beautiful  colour, 
will  distinguish  it  from  most  other  minerals.  The  blue  car- 
bonate of  copper,  which  its  colour  most  resembles,  becomes 
dark,  and  is  reduced  by  the  blow  pipe. 

The  colour  of  lapis  lazuli  is  seldom  uniform,  and  the 
stone  is  often  interspersed  with  spots,  or  veins  of  iron  pyrites. 

Localities.     China,  Persia,  and  Bucharia. 

According  to  Patrin,  as  quoted  by  Pinkerton,  it  chiefly 
comes  from  Great  Bucharia,  where  it  exists  in  rocks  of  gran- 
ite. The  amount  of  Patrins  information  on  this  subject  is  as 
follows : 

Lapis  is  seldom  found  pure,  except  in  small  pieces. 

It  is  disseminated  through  a  granite  rock,  in  all  sorts  of 
proportion,  but  it  is  rare  to  find  a  piece  as  big  as  one's  head, 
in  which  the  blue  predominates  over  the  white  and  gray. 

It  is  sometimes  found  in  solid  pieces,  and  particularly  on 
the  Lake  Baikal. 

Uses.  Lapis  lazuli  receives  a  high  polish,  and  is  in  great 
demand  as  an  ornamental  stone.  Specimens  in  which  the 
yellow  pyrites  is  intermixed,  are  often  extremely  beautiful. 
In  the  palace  which  Catharine  II.  built  for  her  favorite  Orlof, 
•t  St.  Petersburg,  Patrin  says,  there  are  some  apartments  en- 
tirely lined  with  lapis,  and  that  it  would  be  scarcely  possible 
to  imagine  a  decoration  more  simple,  and  at  the  same  time 
more  magnificent. 

But  the  most  important  use  of  this  mineral,  is  that  of  fur- 
nishing the  celebrated  and  beautiful  pigment  called  ultra-ma- 
rine blue. 

Beckmann,  in  his  history  of  inventions,  has  devoted  an  en- 
tire chapter  to  this  subject,  and  as  usual,  has  quoted  a  great 
number  of  authors.  From  him  we  learn  as  follows: 

Lapis  lazuli  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  under  the 
name  of  sapphire. 

The  process  of  preparing  the  ultra-marine  was  known  aa 
early  as  the  15th  century. 

In  the  eleventh  century,  lapis,  or  some  preparation  of  it, 
was  used  in  medicine. 

It  appears  also  that  the  process  for  making  ultra-marine, 

What  is  the  use  of  this  mineral?— Where  is  it  found  7— Was  it  known  to 
the  ancients  ? 


MINERALOGY.  137 

was  for  a  long  time  kept  a  secret,  and  the  paint  sold  at  a  great 
price.  In  1763,  an  ounce  of  it  cost  at  Paris,  four  pounds 
sterling.  It  was  sold  at  a  ducat,  per  ounce  at  Hamburgh, 
and  was  warranted  to  "stand  proof  by  fire." 

The  walls  of  the  palace  at  St.  Petersburg  mentioned  above, 
Beckmann  says,  are  covered  with  amber,  interspersed  with 
plates  of  this  costly  ttone. 

The  process  of  extracting  the  ultra-marine,  is  found  in 
books  on  chemistry.  'It  is  employed  in  oil,  and  not  only  gives 
the  richest  and  most  beautiful  of  all  blue  colors,  but  is  said 
never  to  fade ;  hence  its  high  price. 

Some  engravings  have  been  executed  on  this  stone,  but  it  is 
much  too  soft  for  this  purpose. 

Species  30.     DIPYRE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  or  reddish  white; 
occurs  in  slender  prisms,  fasciculated  into  masses;  form  six- 
sided  prisms,  but  often  so  minute  as  to  render  it  difficult  to 
ascertain  their  modifications;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.63. 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  milk-white,  phosphoresces, 
and  melts  into  a  blebby  colourless  glass.* 

Composition.  Silex60;  alumine24;  lime  10;  water  2.^ 
Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Pyrenees,  in  steatite,  mingled  with  sulphuret 
of  iron.  It  is  very  rare. 

Species  31.     LATJMONITE.J 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  sometimes  with  a 
tinge  of  yellow,  or  red ;  occurs  in  aggregated  crystalline 
masses,  and  in  regular  crystals ;  form  an  octahedral  prism, 
with  dihedral  summits,  variously  modified  by  truncation; 
primary  form,  an  oblique  rhombic  prisrn;  fracture  foliated; 
structure  lamellar ;  cleavage  perfect  in  two  directions ;  trans- 
lucent, or  transparent;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.2. 

Fig.  109. 


Fig.  109.  A  four-sided  prism  with  rhombic  ter- 
minations, and  truncated  lateral  edges. 


*  Hence  the  name,  which  in  Greek  signifies  the  double  effects  of  fire,  in 
lusion  to  its  turning     ' 
tin  honour  of  Gill 


allusion  to  its  turning  white  and  phosphorescing, 
rilbert  Laumont. 


What  is  the  appearance,  and  whence  the  name  of  dipyre? — What  is  the 
colour  of  laumonite,  and  what  are  its  peculiarities  1 
12* 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig.  110.  A  short  four-sided  prism,  truncated 
on  the  solid  angles.  These  are  two  of  the  most 
common  forms. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  difficulty,  into  a  porous 
colourless  glass.  Forms  a  jelly  with  acids. 

Composition.  Silex  49  ;  alumine  22 ;  lime  9  ;  water  17.5  ; 
carbonic  acid  2.5. —  Vogel. 

The  above  description  applies  to  the  present  species,  only 
in  its  recent,  or  perfect  state.  On  exposure  to  the  air  it  efflo- 
resces, or  loses  its  water  of  crystallization,  and  divides  into 
angular  fragments ;  becomes  opake,  of  a  milk-white  colour, 
and  pearly  lustre,  and  finally  falls  into  powder.  Its  appear- 
ance in  this  state,  is  much  like  that  of  selenite,  after  being  ex- 
posed to  heat. 

Localities.  Brittany,  in  a  lead  mine.  Ireland,  and  Faroe, 
in  trap.  China,  Transylvania,  St.  Gothard.  England,  in 
several  places. 

U.  S.  Near  New-Haven,  Conn. — Silliman.  Phillipstown, 
N.  Y. — Barratt.  Peter's  Point,  Nova  Scotia. 

Species  32.     CLAY  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish,  bluish,  or  greenish, 
brown,  also  yellowish  brown  or  black,  always  dull ;  occurs 
massive*  structure  slaty,  lustre  glimmering;  principal  frac- 
ture slaty;  cross  fracture  earthy,  or  uneven  ;  opake;  yields  to 
the  knife;  does  not  adhere  to  the  tongue:  sp.  gr.  about  2.5. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  black  slag. 

Composition.  Silex  48  ;  alumine  25.5  ;  magnesia  1.6 ;  oxide 
of  iron  11.3;  oxide  of  manganese  0.5;  potash  4.7:  carbon 
0.3  ;  water  7.6. — Kirwan. 

It  is  very  universally  distributed,  and  forms  vast  strata  in 
different  countries. 

Localities.     England.     Scotland.      Ireland,  &c. 

U.  S.     Hartford,  Windsor,  Suffield,  Conn. 

Variety  1.     ROOF  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brownish  black  or  bluish 
black;  occurs  massive  in  beds;  fracture  splintery;  cleavage 
perfect  in  one  direction  ;  easily  fusible ;  surface  smooth,  or 

What  is  the  composition  of  clay  slate? 


MINERALOGY.  13U 

slightly  undulating;  divides  into  large  thin  plates;  sonorous, 
when  suspended  and  struck  with  a  hard  body. 

It  is  found  both  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.     It  is  found  in  most  European  countries. 

U.  S.  Wayne,  York,  and  Lancaster  Counties,  Penn.  (quar- 
ried.) Hoosack,  N.  Y.  (quarried.)  Dummerston,  Rockingham, 
Castleton,  and  Brattleborough,  Vt.  Charlestown,  Mass,  ex- 
tensively quarried. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  extensively  in  cities,  to  cover  the 
roofs  of  buildings.  Also,  to  write  upon  in  schools,  &c. 

In  Pennsylvania,  roof  slate  is  quarried,  to  the  amount  of 
about  1600  tons  annually.  It  sells  at  Baltimore,  for  $22  the 
ton. — Hay  den.  It  is  also  extensively  quarried  at  Dummers- 
ton, and  Brattleborough,  Vt. — Hall.  And  at  Charlestown, 
Mass. — Dana. 

Variety  2.     SHINING  ARGILLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blue,  bluish  black,  gray,  and 
reddish;  occurs  massive ;  fracture  slaty;  surface  undulating 
or  waved;  lustre  shining,  sometimes  pseudo-metallic. 

This  variety  is  primitive,  and  passes  into  mica  slate.  It 
abounds  with  ores  ;  most  of  the  tin  and  copper  mines  of  Corn- 
wall traverse  this  rock. 

Variety  3.     SHALE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  bluish  black,  brown, 
reddish,  or  greenish ;  occurs  massive ;  fracture  uneven ;  lus- 
tre dull;  more  or  less  fusible;  yields  to  the  knife;  layers 
often  uneven,  protuberant,  or  knobby ;  adheres  a  little  to  the 
tongue. 

Chemical  characters.     It  is  fusible  by  the  blow  pipe. 

This  variety  often  disintegrates,  and  falls  in  pieces. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  less  solid,  and  not  so  hard  as 
argillite ;  and  does  not,  like  roof  slate,  split  into  thin,  smooth 
layers. 

Variety  4.     BITUMINOUS  SHALE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black  or  brown  ;  structure 
slaty:  fracture  conchoidal;  lustre  a  little  shining  or  dull; 
yields  easily  to  the  knife :  sp.  gr.  about  2. 

This  variety  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  bitumen. 
When  heated  or  struck,  it  exhales  a  strong  bituminous  odour, 
and  often  burns  with  a  flame.  It  is  a  strong  indication  of  coal, 


v  What  is  the  colour  and  what  are  the  uses  of  roof  slate  ?— What  is  shin- 
ing argillite  1 — How  does  bituminous  shale  differ  from  clay  slate  7 


140  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Shaie  frequently  exhibits  impressions  of  vegetables,  as  reeds, 
ferns,  leaves,  &c.  It  also  exhibits  impressions  of  fish. 

Localities.     England,  Scotland,  &c. 

U.  S.     Virginia,  Rhode  Island,  Ohio,  Connecticut,  &c. 

It  is  found  with  the  Rhode  Island  anthracite,  containing  im- 
pressions of  vegetables. 

At  Westfield,  Conn,  is  a  bed  of  highly  bituminous  shale, 
containing  numerous  impressions  of  fish.  Sometimes  the  fish 
are  a  foot,  or  two  feet  long,  the  head,  fins,  and  scales  being 
perfectly  distinguishable.  A  single  specimen  sometimes  pre- 
sents parts  of  three  or  four  fish  lying  in  different  directions, 
and  between  different  layers.  They  are  sometimes  contorted 
and  almost  double.  Their  colour,  sometimes  gray,  is  usually 
black,  and  the  fins  and  scales  appear  to  be  converted  into  coal. 
— Silliman. 

Variety  5.     NOVACULITE.     WHET  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  white,  or  blackish 
gray,  often  running  in  stripes;  translucent  on  the  edges ;  tex- 
ture fine-grained  or  compact ;  structure  slaty,  more  or  less 
fissile ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  fragments  sharp-edged :  sp.  gr. 
2.75. 

Chemical  character.  Fusible  into  a  brownish,  porous  enar 
mel. 

Composition.  Silex  71.3;  alumine  15.3;  oxide  of  iron 
9.3;  water  3.3. — Faraday. 

The  Turkish  hone  often  presents  the  two  colours,  pale  yel- 
low, and  bluish  or  greenish  gray,  in  distinct  layers  or  stripes. 
It  is  from  this  circumstance,  perhaps,  that  this  substance  is 
thought  by  many  to  be  petrified  wood.  Sometimes  the  two 
layers  are  cemented  together.  The  yellow  is  generally  more 
compact  and  hard  than  the  bluish. 

Localities.  In  the  primitive  mountains  of  Saxony,  and  in 
several  parts  of  Germany.  It  was  first  brought  from  the  Le- 
vant, hence  it  was  called  Turkish  hone. 

U.  S.  Berks  county,  Penn.  It  is  explored,  and  sells  at  25 
cents  the  pound. — Cooper.  Arkansas  Territory,  of  a  good 
quality. — Schooler  aft.  Charlestown,  Maiden,  and  Dorches- 
ter, Mass. — Dana.  Thetford,  Vt. — Hall.  Kennebec  river, 
Maine. — Cleveland. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  to  give  a  fine  edge  to  cutting  instru- 
ments. 

What  is  said  of  impressions  offish  and  vegetables  on  bituminous  shale? 
Is  the  Turkish  hone  a  petrefaction  or  not? — Is  novaculite  found  in  this 
country  ? 


MINERALOGY.  141 

Variety  6.     ALUM  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  bluish  or  greenish  black,  or 
iron  black;  sometimes  iridiscent;  structure  slaty;  layers 
often  curved  or  undulated;  lustre  glimmering  or  dull ;  frac- 
ture uneven  or  earthy:  sp.  gr.  2.33. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible.  It  turns  red  by  the  action 
of  heat,  and  falls  in  pieces. 

Composition.  Silex  40;  alumine  16;  carbon  19.6;  sulphur 
2.8;  sulphate  of  iron,  lime,  and  potash  1.5  each;  iron  6.4; 
\A|ater  1 0. 7. — Klaproth. 

On  exposure  to  the  air,  it  disintegrates,  and  throws  out  a 
saline  efflorescence,  which  covers  the  surface  with  a  white 
powder,  and  which  is  found  to  be  alum.  The  production  of 
this  salt  is  explained  on  the  principle  of  chemical  affinity. 
The  sulphur,  on  exposure,  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  is  converted  into  sulphuric  acid,  which  then  unites 
to  the  alumine  and  potash,  and  forms  a  sulphate  of  alumine  and 
pottish,  or  alum. — The  alum  is  then  obtained  by  lixiviation. 

Localities.  Yorkshire,  and  near  Whitby,  Eng.  At  Whit- 
by  are  extensive  alum  works.  Also  in  Italy,  near  Rome. 

U.  S.  Frederick  and  Washington  Counties,  Md.  Near 
Zanesville,  Ohio.  Near  New  Lebanon  Springs,  N.Y.  Pow- 
rial,  Vt  Also  in  the  western  counties  of  Pennsylvania. 

Variety  7.     ADHESIVE  SLATE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  gray  or  greenish 
brown  ;  occurs  massive;  texture  slaty,  which  becomes  visible 
on  exposure;  but  if  the  mass  be  moistened,  the  slaty  charac- 
ters disappear :  splits  easily ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  adheres  to 
the  tongue :  sp.  gr.  about  2. 

Composition.  Silex  82.50;  alumine  0.75;  lime  0.25; 
magnesia,  8.0;  carbon  0.75;  iron  4. — Klaproth. 

Locality.     Near  Paris,  in  the  gypsum  formations. 

Variety  8.     POLISHING  SLATE. 

Exteral  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white,  or 
yellow;  occurs  massive;  structure  slaty;  opake;  brittle;  often 
swims  on  water  for  a  short  time. 

Composition.  Silex  83.50;  alumine  4;  lime  8.50;  oxide  of 
iron  1.60;  water  9.0. — Bucholz. 

Localities.     Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  Auvergne.     It  is  sup 
posed  to  be  a  volcanic  production. 

Uses.     It  .is  used  for  polishing  glass,  marble,  the  metals,  &c. 
*  Because  it  adheres  to  the  tongue. 

What  is  alum  slate,  and  how  is  alum  obtained  from  it  ? 


142  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  9.     GRAPHIC  SLATE.     BLACK  CHALK. 

External  characters.  Colours,  black,  grayish,  or  bluisli 
black;  structure  slaty;  fracture  earthy;  leaves  a  black  dull 
trace  on  wood,  or  paper;  opake;  soils  the  fingers:  sp.  gr. 
2.14. 

Composition.  Silex64;  alumine  11.25  ;  carbon  1 1 ;  oxide 
of  iron  2.75  ;  water  7.5. —  Weiglib. 

It  is  found  with  argillite,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  coal  forma- 
tions. 

Localities.     Spain,  France,  Italy,  Iceland,  &c. 

U.  S.  Rhode  Island,  with  anthracite.  On  the  Susque- 
hannah,  Penn. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  for  tracing  lines  on  wood,  and  for 
making  crayons,  for  drawings. 

Species  33.     SILICIOUS  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  bluish  gray,  reddish, 
brown  or  black;  occurs  massive;  structure  slaty:  fracture 
imperfectly  conch oidal;  lustre  glimmering;  hardness  about 
equal  to  that  of  quartz ;  translucent  on  the  edges ;  colours 
sometimes  arranged  in  spots  or  stripes:  sp.  gr.  2.59  to  2.64. 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible,  but  turns  reddish. 

Composition.  Silex  75  ;  the  remainder  being  lime,  magne 
sia,  and  oxide  of  iron. —  Weiglib. 

Localities.     Saxony,  Bohemia,  France,  Scotland. 

Variety  1.     BASINITE.     TOUCHSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  black,  or  black; 
occurs  massive,  and  in  rolled  pieces;  opake;  fracture  con- 
choidal ;  streak  black. 

This  variety  was  formerly  much  employed  as  a  test  of  the 
purity  of  gold.  The  metal  being  drawn  across  the  stone,  a 
judgment  of  its  purity  or  quantity  of  alloy,  is  formed  by  the 
colour  of  the  streak  ;  and  if  this  is  not  satisfactory,  the  trace 
of  metal  is  touched  with  nitric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  alloy- 
ing substance  without  touching  the  gold.  Hence  the  name 
touchstone. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Topsham,  Mass.  Northampton,  N.  H. 
Near  Reading  and  Bethlehem,  Penn.  Topsham,  Me. 

Species  34.     CLAY. 
The  varieties  of  this  species  are  composed  of  silex  and  alu 

What  is  the  use  of  graphic  slate  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  siliciou 
slate? — What  is  the  use  of  the  touchstone  7 


MINERALOGY.  143 

miue,  with  variable  proportions  of  oxide  of  iron,  and  sometimes 
a  little  carbon,  manganese,  and  water. 

Variety  \.     INDURATED  CLAY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  yellowish  gray, brown, 
reddish,  and  sometimes  greenish;  occurs  massive;  fracture 
conchoidal  and  splintery;  yields  to  the  knife;  texture  com- 
pact, or  porous  ;  yields  an  argillaceous  odour  when  moistened; 
crumbles  and  falls  in  pieces  in  water;  opake  ;  specific  gravity 
about  2.21. 

It  sometimes  forms  the  basis  of  porphyry. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  glazed  by 
heat. 

It  often  occurs  in  extensive  beds. 

Variety  2.     IRON    CLAY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish,  or  yellowish  brown, 
occurs  massive  ;  fracture  earthy ;  opake ;  easily  broken  ; 
gives  an  argillaceous  odour ;  often  porous,  or  amygdaloidal. 

Localities.     Ireland,  Scotland,  England,  &c. 
Variety  3.     WACKE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  gray,  brownish, 
greenish,  or  reddish;  occurs  massive;  fracture  conchoidal, 
or  earthy:  opake;  unctuous  to  the  touch;  gives  the  argilla- 
ceous odour  when  breathed  on;  may  be  cut  by  a  knife:  sp. 
gr.  2.53  to  2.89. 

Chemical  character.     Fusible  into  a  porous  slag. 

Composition.  Silex  28 ;  alumine  23 ;  lime  4.5 :  water 
J6.18;  oxide  of  iron  26;  carbonic  acid  2.32. —  Webster. 

It  is  associated  with  basalt,  and  seems  to  be  intermediate 
between  that  substance  and  clay. 

Localities.     Germany,  Scotland,  Saxon}',  Norway. 

U.  S.  Near  Boston,  Mass.  It  there  forms  the  basis  of 
amygdaloid. — Cleveland. 

It  frequently  contains  imbedded  crystals,  of  mica,  horn- 
blende, calcareous  spar,  &c.  In  it  are  also  found  magnetic 
iron,  chalcedony,  agate,  and  zeolite.  It  also  sometimes  con- 
tains fossil  bones,  and  petrified  wood,  but  Jameson  says,  it 
never,  like  basalt,  contains  augite,  or  olivine. 
Variety  4.  ROTTEN  STONE. 

External  characters.     Colour,  brownish  gray,  or  reddish 

*  Pronounced  "Wak-ke. 

What  are  the  varieties  of  clay  composed  of  ?— What  kind  of  a  stone  is 
wacke  1 


144  INTRODUCTION  TO 

brown,  passing  into  black ;  occurs  massive;  fracture  earthy 
and  dull;  soft;  soils  the  fingers;  fetid  when  rubbed  or 
scraped. 

Composition.     Alumine  86 ;  silex  4  ;  carbon  1 0. — Phillips. 

Locality.  Derbyshire,  where  it  is  believed  to  arise  from 
the  decomposition  of  the  shale  of  that  country. — Phillips. 

U.  S.     Albany,  N.  Y. 

Variety  5.     PORCELAIN  CLAY.     KAOLIN. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish,  or  reddish  white  ; 
occurs  massive;  composed  of  small  particles  slightly  cohe- 
rent; soft;  friable  between  the  fingers;  unctuous  to  the 
touch ;  adheres  slightly  to  the  tongue ;  absorbs  water,  and 
falls  to  powder ;  but  cloes  not  form  a  ductile  paste :  sp.  gr. 
2.20  to  2.40. 

Chemical  character.      Infusible. 

Composition.  (From  Saxony,)  silex  55  ;  alumine  27  ;  lime 
2;  water  14;  oxide  of  iron  5. —  Vavquelin.  (From  Corn- 
wall,) silex  20;  alumine  GO  ;  water  12. —  Wedgeurood.  (From 
Vermont,)  silex  5G:  alumine  43. — Smith. 

This  is  the  clay  of  which  China  or  porcelain  ware  is  manu- 
factured. It  is  infusible,  even  in  a  porcelain  furnace,  when 
pure,  but  hardens,  and  acquires  a  degree  of  firmness,  though 
not  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  the  manufacturer,  without 
the  addition  of  some  flux,  as  a  little  lime,  by  which  it  is  soft- 
ened in  the  fire,  and  as  it  cools  assumes  the  proper  degree  of 
hardness  and  firmness. 

Sometimes  the  best  porcelain  clay  is  of  a  yellowish  colour, 
probably  from  the  intermixture  of  earthy  matter,  as  it  becomes 
white  in  the  fire.  When  coloured  by  oxide  of  iron,  or  other 
metallic  oxides,  it  becomes  reddish  or  brown  in  the  fire,  by 
which  its  value  is  greatly  lessened.  The  value  of  this  clay, 
can  therefore  be  ascertained,  only  by  actual  experiment. 

Porcelain  clay  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  where  it  occurs 
in  beds,  more  or  less  extensive.  It  is  produced  by  the  decom- 
position of  felspar,  one  of  the  component  parts  of  granite,  and 
more  particularly  of  graphic  granite,  which  is  almost  entirely 
composed  of  felspar. 

Localities.  Meissein,  in  Saxony,  and  from  which  the 
Saxon  porcelain  is  made.  Limoges,  in  France.  Cornwall, 
in  England.  Near  Passau,  in  Austria,  &c. 

.U.  S.  Monkton,  Vt.  At  this  place,  it,  appears  to  form  a 
large  bed,  and  to  be  of  a  good  quality  for  the  manufacture  of 

What  is  the  colour  of  porcelain  clay  ? — Why  is  it  called  porcelain  clay  1 
—Where is  this  clay  found? 


MINERALOGY.  145 

porcelain. — Silliman.  Near  Wilmington,  Del.  Near  Phil- 
adelphia, Penn.,  in  several  places. —  Wister.  Washington, 
Conn.,  in  small  quantities. 

Variety   6.     LITHOMARGE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish  or  yellowish  white, 
also  bluish,  and  grayish  white,  often  spotted  internally;  occurs 
massive;  opake ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  texture  fine-grained  ; 
soft;  adheres  to  the  tongue;  polishes  with  the  nail;  falls  to 
powder  in  water,  but  does  not  form  a  paste :  sp.  gr.  2.20. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible;  sometimes  phosphoresces, 
when  heated. 

Composition.  Silex45.2;  alumine  39.5 ;  water  14;  oxide 
of  iron  2.7. — Klaproth. 

It  is  found  in  veins  in  porphyry,  gneiss,  and  serpentine,  and 
in  beds  over  coal. 

Werner  divides  it  into  two  kinds,  indurated  and  friable. 

Localities.     Saxony,  England. 

U.  S.  Bare  Hills,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  Montgomery 
County,  Penn. 

Variety  7.     FULLER'S  EARTH. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  brown,  greenish 
gray,  greenish  white,  yellowish,  reddish,  and  bluish,  some- 
times striped  or  spotted;  occurs  massive  ;  fracture  somexvhat 
conchoidal  ;  texture  earthy ;  polishes  with  the  finger  nail; 
unctuous  to  the  touch  ;  soft  and  tender  ;  becomes  translucent 
when  thrown  into  the  water,  and  falls  into  a  pulpy  impalpable 
powder ;  but  does  not  become  ductile :  sp.  gr.  1.7  to  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  porous  slag.  Turns 
white  when  heated. 

Composition.  Silex  53  ;  alumine  10  ;  water  24  ;  magnesia 
1  25  ;  lime  0.5;  muriate  of  soda  0.1 ;  oxide  of  iron  9.75. — 
Klaproth. 

It  is  found  in  beds,  sometimes  enclosing  fossil  wood,  sea 
shells,  sulphate  of  barytes,  and  quartz. 

Localities.  The  best,  is  said  to  occur  in  England.  It  is 
also  found  in  Austria,  Saxony,  &c. 

U.  S.     Nevvfield,  Maine.     Kent,  Conn. 

Uses.  This  earth  was  formerly  much  employed  in  the 
fulling  of  cloth,  whence  its  name.  At  the  present  time,  soap 
is  generally  substituted. 

*  Signifies  Rock  Marrow, 

What  are  the  colour*  of  fuller's  earth? 
13 


146  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  8.     TRIPOLI.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  various  shades  of  gray,  yel- 
low, and  red;  occurs  massive;  fracture  dull,  coarse,  and 
earthy  :  yields  to  the  nail ;  rough  to  the  touch ;  opake  ;  aspect 
argillaceous ;  indurated  or  friable ;  does  not  form  paste  with 
water  :  sp.  gr.  2.20. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible;  sometimes  effervesces 
with  acids,  from  foreign  ingredients. 

Composition.  Silex  90 ;  the  rest  being  alumine,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  lime. 

It  is  found  among  secondary  rocks,  or  in  alluvial  earths. 

Localities.     France,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Brittany,  &c. 

Uses.  It  is  used,  like  emery,  for  polishing  metals,  stones, 
marble,  &c. 

Variety  9.     BOLE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish  yello\v,  brownish 
black,  yellowish  white,  or  pitch  black ;  occurs  in  solid  amor- 
phous masses;  opake;  fracture  conchoidal;  smooth  to  the 
touch ;  yields  an  argillaceous  odour  when  moistened ;  soils 
the  fingers  :  sp.  gr.  2.  V%~«F~~ 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  red,  or  black,  and  melts  into 
a  porous  slag. 

Composition.  (From  Lemnos,)  silex  66;  alumine  14.5; 
water  8.5;  oxide  of  iron  6;  soda  3.5;  lime  and  magnesia 
0.5. — Klaproth. 

It  is  found  with  basalt  and  wacke. 

Localities.     Armenia  and  Lemnos. 

Bole  appears  to  be  a  fine  clay,  coloured  by  iron. 

Uses.  Formerly  the  Armenian  bole  was  much  employed 
in  medicine  as  an  astringent  and  absorbent.  That  of  Lemnos 
was  used  when  moistened, and  made  into  a  thick  paste,  to  take 
the  impressions  of  seals,  and  hence  was  called  terra  sigillata. 
Bole  from  Sienna,  called  Terra  de  Sienna,  is  of  a  dark  brown 
colour,  and  is  used  as  a  paint.  At  the  present  time,  the.  red 
bole  is  employed  at  Constantinople,  to  form  the  bowls  of  their 
tobacco  pipes.  It  takes  an  exact  and  beautiful  impression 
from  the  mould,  and  when  gilded,  appears  like  the  finest  work- 
manship. 

*  It  was  first  brought  from  Tripoli. 

Why  is  this  variety  called  by  this  name  ? — What  is  the  composition  of 
Tripoli,  and  what  its  uses?— What  are  the  uses  of  bole  1 


MINERALOGY.  147 

Variety  10.     CIMOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  internally,  grayish  white,  but 
acquires  a  reddish  tint  by  exposure ;  occurs  massive;  frac- 
ture earthy ;  texture  a  little  slaty  ;  yields  to  the  nail ;  adheres 
to  the  tongue ;  gives  a  shining  streak  ;  falls  to  pieces  in  water: 
sp.  gr.  2. 

Chemical  characters.     It  whitens,  but  is  infusible. 

Composition.  Silex  63  ;  alumine23 ;  water  12 ;  iron  1.25. 
— Klaproth. 

Locality.  Argenteria,  formerly  Cimolus,  an  island  in  the 
Archipelago,  situated  near  Milo. 

Uses.  It  was  employed  by  the  ancients  as  a  detergent, 
and  is  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  as  a  substitute  for 
fuller's  earth,  at  the  present  day. 

Variety  11.     MOUNTAIN  MEAL. 

This  singular  substance  was  found  in  the  form  of  a  bed,  by 
Fibbroni,  at  Santa  Fiori,  between  Tuscany  and  the  Papal  do- 
minions. It  is  formed  into  bricks,  so  light  as  to  swim  on 
water. — Phillips. 

Composition.  Silex  79 ;  alumine  5 ;  oxide  of  iron  3 ;  .water 
12. — Klaproth. 

Variety  12.     PIPE  CLAY.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  white;  fracture 
earthy;  feels  smooth  and  greasy;  adheres  to  the  tongue; 
when  kneaded  with  water,  becomes  plastic  and  tenacious. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  white  in  the  fire,  but  is 
infusible. 

This  is  merely  a  pure  kind  of  potter's  clay. 

Localities.     Devonshire  and  Dorsetshire,  Eng. 

U.  S.     Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass. 

Uses.  Besides  tobacco  pipes,  it  forms  the  basis  of  queen's 
ware. 

Variety  13.     POTTER'S  CLAY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  grayish  white,  reddish, 
or  bluish  ;  occurs  massive  in  beds;  fracture  earthy;  texture 
more  or  less  compact ;  sometimes  friable ;  soft  and  unctuous 
to  the  touch ;  when  dry,  receives  a  polish  from  the  nail ;  when 
moistened  and  worked,  it  makes  a  very  tenacious  and  ductile 
paste:  sp.  gr.  from  1.08  to  2. 

*  Because  tobacco  pipes  are  made  of  it. 

What  is  said  of  cimolite  and  mountain  meal  ?— What  are  tlie  colour^ 
qualities,  and  uses  of  potter's  clay? 


149  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible.  Some  varieties,  however, 
soften  in  a  porcelain  heat. 

Composition.  Silex  43.5  ;  alumine  33.2  ;  lime  3.5 ;  iron 
1.0;  water  18. — Klaproth. 

It  is  found  in  beds,  or  forming  hills.  It  often  contains  or- 
ganic remains  of  animals,  fish,  and  plants. 

Uses.  This  clay  is  employed  in  large  quantities,  in  the 
manufacture  of  stoneware,  consisting  of  pots,  jugs,  churns, 
jars,  &c.  which  are  of  a  yellowish,  or  grayish  white  colour. 
When  quite  pure,  it  is  necessary  to  mix  with  it  a  proportion  of 
ground  flints,  to  temper  it  for  the  potter's  use.  When  it  con- 
tains a  sufficient  quantity  of  fine  silicious  matter,  this  becomes 
unnecessary. 

Stoneware  is  glazed  in  the  furnace,  by  throwing  in  a  quan- 
tity of  common  salt,  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  burning.  It  may 
also  be  glazed  by  a  mixture  of  alkali,  ground  silex,  and  oxide 
of  lead,  spread  on  each  vessel. 

Localities.  Devonshire,  and  Hampshire,  in  England,  from 
whence  large  quantities  are  taken  to  supply  the  potteries  at 
Staffordshire  and  Newcastle. 

U.  S.  Near  Philadelphia,  Penn.  Burlington  and  Borden- 
town,  N.  J.  of  a  good  quality  for  pottery.  Also  in  Maryland. 
Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.  It  is  white,  and  fit  for  pipe  clay. 
Missouri,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  This  is  an 
immense  bed  of  34  miles  long,  and  from  one  to  ten  feet  in 
thickness. — Jessup. 

Variety  14.      LOAM. 

Loam,  or  brick  earth,  varies  very  much  in  appearance,  tex- 
ture, and  composition.  It  consists  of  potter's  clay  mixed  with 
a  portion  of  sand,  carbonate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  mica, 
chalk,  &c. 

It  is  the  substance  of  which  bricks  are  made,  and  is  found  in 
almost  every  country. 

Variety  15.     REDDLE.     RED   CHALK. 

External  characters.  Colour  red,  of  different  shades;  oc- 
curs massive;  fracture  conchoidal;  texture  earthy;  struc- 
ture often  slaty ;  soils  the  fingers,  and  leaves  a  bright  red 
trace  on  paper ;  opake ;  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  gives  an 
argillaceous  odour  when  moistened ;  falls  to  powder  in  water, 
but  does  not  form  a  paste :  sp.  gr.  from  3.13  to  3.93. 

It  seems  to  pass  into  red  oxide  of  iron.     It  occurs  in  small 

'      What  is  said  of  red  chalk? 


MINERALOGY.  149 

masses  in  clay-slate,  and  sandstone,  of  the  more  recent  forma- 
lions. 

Localities.  France,  Germany,  Siberia,  &c.  That  used  in 
commerce,  is  brought  from  Germany  and  France. 

Uses.  It  is  principally  used  for  drawing.  The  coarser 
varieties  are  used  by  the  carpenter,  the  finer  by  the  painter. 

It  is  either  used  in  the  natural  state,  or  is  pounded,  washed, 
and  mixed  with  gum,  and  cast  into  moulds.  The  crayons 
which  are  designed  for  small  and  delicate  drawings,  are  mixed 
with  a  large  portion  of  gum,  in  order  to  give  them  sufficient 
hardness. — Jameson. 

Species  35.     GMELINITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  passing  into  flesh- 
red ;  occurs  in  very  short  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  two 
six-sided  pyramids,  with  truncated  summits.  The  figure  dif- 
fers from  a  dodecahedron,  with  isoceles  triangular  faces,  only 
in  having  a  short  prism  between  the  pyramids,  and  in  the 
truncation  of  their  summits  ;  surface  streaked;  cleavage  dis- 
tinct in  one  direction;  lustre  vitreous;  translucent;  yields  to 
the  knife:  sp.  gr.  2.05. 

Chemical  characters.  When  held  in  the  flame,  of  a  candle, 
it  flies  off  in  numerous  scales. 

Composition.  Silex  50 ;  alumine  20 ;  lime  4.50 ;  soda  4.50; 
water  21. —  Vauquelin. 

This  mineral  appears  to  be  a  variety  of  analcime.  Accord- 
ing to  Mohs,  gmelinite  has  no  connexion  with  the  sacolite 
of  Vauquelin,  or  the  hydrolite  of  De  Dree,  though  by  some 
it  has  been  considered  the  same  mineral. 

Locality.     Glenarne,  in  the  County  of  Antrim,  in  Ireland. 

Species  36.     FAHLUNITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  dark  reddish  brown,  streak 
grayish  white ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  thin  layers ;  opake,  or 
translucent  on  the  edges ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  scratches  glass  ; 
lustre  waxy ;  texture  crystalline ;  sometimes  shows  a  tendency 
fo  form  six-sided  prisms. 

Composition.  Silex  46.74 ;  alumine  26.73 ;  magnesia 
2.97;  oxide  of  iron  5. 11  ;  water  12.5. — Heisinger. 

Locality.  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  imbedded  in  a  slaty  talcose 
rock,  in  a  copper  mine. 

Species  37.     HARMOTOME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  milk  white, 
sometimes  with  a.  tinge  of  yellow,  or  reuj  occurs  in  crystals 

*  From  its  locality. 
13* 


Fig.  112. 


150.  INTRODUCTION  TO 

which  are  rectangular  four-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  rhom- 
bic planes,  or  four-sided  pyramids;  solid  angles  often  trunca- 
ted; crystals  cross  each  other  lengthwise,  or  so  that  the  broad 
planes  of  one  prism  are  perpendicular  to  the  broad  planes  of 
the  other.  Crystals  often  compressed  into  a  tabular  form ; 
translucent,  or  transparent;  lustre  pearly;  scratches  glass; 
structure  foliated  :  sp.  gr.  2.35. 
Fig.  111. 


Fig.  111.     A  compressed  four-sided  prism,  termi- 
nated by  a  pyramid,  consisting  of  four  rhombic  faces. 


Fig.  112.  A  double,  or  twin  crystal,  consisting  of 
two  four-sided  prisms  joined  together,  and  intersect- 
ing each  other  so  as  to  make  their  axes  coincide. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  diaphanous  glass.  On 
hot  coals  phosphoresces  with  a  greenish  light. 

Composition.  Silex  49;  alumine  16;  barytes  18;  water 
15. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  does  not,  like  zeolite,  form  a 
jelly  with  acids;  arragonite  is  infusible;  staurotide  is  of  a 
deeper  colour  and  infusible.  Stilbite  exfoliates  on  hot  coals. 

Localities.  In  the  Hartz,  it  is  found  in  metalliferous  veins, 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  and  sulphuret  of  lead.  Also  in  Nor- 
way, Scotland,  and  Germany.  It  is  a  rare  mineral. 

Species  38.     AMIANTHOIDE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  olive  green,  or  greenish 
white;  occurs  in  long  capillary  filaments,  very  flexible  and 
elastic;  lustre  shining  and  silky. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  difficulty,  into  blackish 
enamel. 

Composition.  Silex  47  ;  lime  1 1  :  magnesia  7  ;  oxide  of 
iron  20;  oxide  of  manganese  10. —  Vauquelin. 

*  From  resemblance  to  amianthus. 

What  are  the  colours  and  crystalline  forms  of  harmotome'? — How  is 
harmotome  distinguished  from  zeolite  ? 


MINERALOGY.  151 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  more  elastic  than  amianthus, 
and  more  flexible  than  asbestos.  The  result  of  its  fusion,  will 
aJs>o  distinguish  it  from  both. 

Locality.     Oisane,  in  France. 

U.  S.     Topsham,  Maine. — Cleveland. 

Variety  1.     BYSSOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  or  brownish  yellow ; 
occurs  in  delicate  filaments  implanted  on  other  minerals, 
standing  erect,  and  somewhat  resembling  a  kind  of  moss. 
These  filaments  are  flexible  and  elastic. 

Composition.  Silex  34 ;  alumine  43  ;  lime  9 ;  oxide  of  iron 
19. — Saussure. 

Localities.  At  the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  at  Oisane,  in 
France. 

Species  39.     AUGITE.     PYROXENE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  brownish,  or  black- 
ish green,  yellowish  green,  gray,  and  sometimes  white  ;  occurs 
in  crystals,  in  grains,  and  amorphous ;  form,  six  or  eight-sided 
prisms,  terminated  at  each  extremity  by  two  principal  faces ; 
primary  form,  an  oblique  rhombic  prism ;  cleavage  parallel 
to  the  sides  of  this  prism;  lustre  glimmering  or  splendent; 
opake;  scratches  glass ;  structure  foliated;  fracture  conchoi- 
dal,  or  uneven:  sp.  gr.  from  3.15  to  3*57. 

Fig.  113. 

Fig.  113.  A  short  four-sided  prism,  termi- 
nated by  two  principal  faces,  and  truncated  on 
the  lateral  edges. 


Fig.  114.  A  short  six-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  two  faces,  each  face  including  the  three  late- 
ral planes  of  the  prism. 


Sometimes  it  occurs  in  hemitrope  crystals.  It  is  subject  to 
decomposition,  by  which  it  is  reduced  to  a  yellowish  green, 
earthy  mass. 

Augite  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  in  the  productions 

*  From  its  resemblance  to  lichen  or  moss. 


How  does  amianthoide  differ  from  amianthus? — What  are  the  colours 
of  augite,  and  what  are  its  crystalline  forms  ? 


152  INTRODUCTION  TO 

of  volcanoes.  But  whether  in  the  latter  case,  it  existed  in  the 
rock  previously,  and  had  passed  the  action  of  the  volcanic 
fire  unaltered,  or  whether  its  crystals  are  formed  in  the  lava, 
after  its  ejection,  is  a  matter  of  doubt  and  dispute,  among 
geologists. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  in  small  fragments,  into  a 
glassy  globule,  the  colour  of  which  depends  on  that  of  the 
specimen. 

Composition.  Silex  54.86;  lime  23. 57;  magnesia  16.49; 
protoxide  of  iron  4.44;  manganese  0.42;  alumine  0.21. — 
Rose. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  commonly  darker,  and  always 
harder,  and  heavier  than  olivine.  Hornblende  is  more  easily 
fusible  than  augite,  sahlite  is  commonly  more  translucent, 
yenite  fuses  readily,  and  attracts  the  magnet.  By  these  dif- 
ferences, this  species  may  be  distinguished. 

Localities.  Vesuvius,  Etna,  Stromboli,  Teneriflfe,  Bourbon, 
&c.  in  volcanic  products.  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Transylvania, 
and  Hesse,  in  basalt,  Norway,  in  primitive  trap.  NorthWales, 
Scotland,  England,  &c.  in  trap  and  basalt. 

U.  S.  Kingsbridge,  N.  Y.  in  primitive  limestone.  It  is 
white. — Bruce.  Litchfleld,  Conn.,  in  whitish  crystals,  some- 
times four  inches  long. — Brace.  Also  at  Washington,  and 
Brookfield,  Conn.  Deerfield.  Mass,  in  black  imperfect  crys- 
tals. Eight  miles  from  Baltimore,  in  white  six-sided  prisms. 
Also  five  miles  from  Baltimore,  in  six-sided  prisms,  of  an  olive 
green,  or  brownish  red  colour,  and  sometimes  five  or  six 
inches  long. — Hayden.  Pittsfield,  Mass.  Also  at  Bytown, 
in  Lower  Canada,  in  white  semi-transparent  crystals,  dissem- 
inated in  calcareous  spar.  Munroe,  N.  Y.  in  the  iron  mines, 
of  a  green  colour.  Canaan,  Conn,  in  dolomite,  colour  white. 
Balton,  Mass.  Near  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.  of  a  dark  green,  as- 
sociated with  sphone  and  plumbago. 

The  following  minerals  are  considered  varieties  of  augite. 

Variety  1.     DIOPSIDE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  greenish  white,  gray- 
ish and  yellowish  white ;  occurs  in  crystals,  of  which  the 
primitive  form  is  an  oblique  rhombic  prism  ;  secondary  forms, 
six,  eight,  or  twelve-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four  or  six 
faces,  crystals  longitudinally  striated;  translucent  or  transpa- 
*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  transparency. 

What  are  the  situations  in  which  it  is  found?— What  minerals  does  it 
most  resemble  ?— What  is  the  composition  of  augite?— What  is  diopside  ? 


MINERALOGY.  153 

rent ;  often  compressed  into  tables ;  sometimes  the  crystals  are 
fibrous,  and  are  aggregated  into  radiating  masses ;  structure 
foliated ;  scratches  glass ;  lustre  vitreous  and  shining :  sp.  gr. 
between  3.23  and  3.30. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  a  gray- 
ish limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  57  ;  magnesia  1 8.25  ;  lime  16.5  ;  oxides 
of  iron  and  manganese  6. — Laugier. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  augite  and  sahlite, 
it  being  more  transparent,  and  of  brighter  green. 

Localities.  Mussa,  in  Piedmont,  and  hence  it  has  been 
called  mussite. 

U.  S.  Philipstown,  N.  Y.  Pennsborough,  Penn.  Bol- 
ton,  Mass. 

Variety  2.     PYRGOM.     FASSAITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  of  various  shades, 
often  blackish  green  ;  occurs  in  crystals  of  six  or  eight  sides; 
also  in  the  form  of  an  octahedron,  or  double  four-sided  pyra- 
mid, truncated  on  the  edges  ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of 
an  oblique  rhombic  prism;  crystals  in  confused  groups  ;  trans- 
lucent or  opake  ;  scratches  glass. 

Locality.     In  the  valley  of  Fassa,  in  the  Tyrol. 

Variety  3      SAHLITE. f 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  green,  or  pale  green; 
occurs  in  four  or  eight-sided  crystals,  with  dihedral  summits; 
also  massive,  and  in  granular  concretions ;  structure,  of  the 
massive  lamellar,  with  joints  parallel  to  the  planes  of  an 
oblique  prism  ;  lustre  shining,  or  glimmering ;  a  whitish  fo- 
liated substance  often  interposes  between  the  natural  joints ; 
slightly  unctuous  to  the  touch ;  translucent  or  opake;  breaks 
easily  into  rhomboidal  fragments :  sp.  gr.  about  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  or  melts  with  difficulty 
into  a  porous  glass.  In  small  fragments  with  borax  it  does 
not  melt,  but  seems  to  impart  its  colour  to  the  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  53  ;  alumine  3 ;  lime  20 ;  magnesia  19 ; 
oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  4. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters. — Sahlite  is  of  a  paler  green  than 
augite,  and  less  transparent  than  diopside,  into  which  it  passes. 
Fassaite  occurs  most  commonly  in  crystals,  sahlite  rarely. 

*  From  the  valley  of  Fassa. 

t  Because  it  was  found  at  Sahla. 

Of  what  mineral  are  diopside,  pyrgom,  and  sahlite  varieties  ?— What  is 
the  composition  of  sahlite  ? 


1M  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Localities.  Sahla,  in  Sweden,  in  a  silver  mine.  Arendai, 
in  Norway,  with  iron,  lead,  and  hornblende.  Siberia,  with 
beryl  and  mica. 

U.  S.  Near  Lake  Champlain,  N.  Y.  West-Haven.  Conn. 
Near  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.  in  green  octahedral  crystals  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. — McEwen.  Near  New-Haven,  Conn,  in 
serpentine.  It  is  olive  green  and  foliated. — Silliman.  Mun- 
roe,  N.  Y. 

Variety  4.     BAIKALITE. 

This  substance  receives  its  name  from  the  lake  Baikal,  in 
Siberia,  and  was  considered  by  Werner  as  a  distinct  variety. 
But  no  difference  can  be  observed  between  it  and  sahlite. 
They  are  therefore  considered  to  be  the  same  mineral. 
Variety  5.     COCCOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  bluish  green, 
greenish  black,  red,  or  reddish  brown  ;  occurs  ii»  grains  ad- 
hering together,  and  forming  masses  of  irregular  shapes; 
lustre  vitreous  and  shining;  scratches  glass;  translucent; 
grains  angular,  and  easily  separable  by  the  ringers:  sp.  gr. 
from  3. 30  to  3.37. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  ease,  into  a  vitreous 
opake  globule. 

Composition.  SilexSO;  aluminel.5;  lime  24;  magnesia 
10;  oxide  of  iron  7  ;  oxide  of  manganese  3. —  Vauqvelin. 

The  grains  of  this  substance  are  of  all  sizes,  from  that  ot 
the  smallest  sand,  to  that  of  a  pea.  Their  form  is  angular,  or 
rounded,  with  irregular  shining  faces,  often  resembling  crys- 
tals. In  the  same  mass  the  different  colours,  red,  green,  &c. 
sometimes  occur  in  distinct  grains.  Sometimes  thin,  white, 
and  apparently  silicious  partitions  run  through  the  masses, 
and  divide  them  into  layers. 

Localities.  Arendai,  in  Norway,  with  iron  and  carbonate 
of  lime.  Antrim,  in  Ireland,  disseminated  in  limestone. 

U.  S.   Westchester,  Ticonderoga,  and  Philipstown,  N.  Y. 
Charlotte,  Vt.     At  the  last  locality  it  is  found  in  abundance, 
and  of  various  colours. — Hall.     Willsborough,  N.  Y. 
Variety  6.     WHITE  COCCOLITE. — (Dr.  Barratt.) 

External  characters.  Colour,  clear  white,  or  yellowish 
white  ;  occurs  in  masses  composed  of  angular  grains  of  the 
size  of  gun  shot. 

*  From  the  Greek,  a  granular  stone. 

I 

What  is  the  appearance  of  coccolite  1 — Where  is  it  found  in  this  country  ? 


MINERALOGY.  155 

Locality.  Philipstown,  Putnam  County,  N.  Y.  The 
masses  are  interspersed  with  crystals  of  white  augite. 

This  is  a  new  variety,  and  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Barratt, 
in  1820. 

Dr.  Barratt  also  found  at  the  same  locality,  rose-coloured 
coccolite. — Silliman's  Journal. 

Species  40.     HORNBLENDE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  bottle-green,  passing 
into  black ;  occurs  massive,  crystallized  and  slaty ;  form  of 
the  primitive,  an  oblique  rhombic  prism;  secondary  form,  a 
six-sided  prism,  variously  modified;  crystals  striated,  and  often 
flattened  ;  sometimes  distinct,  but  commonly  aggregated,  inter- 
secting each  other,  or  in  confusedly  radiating  masses ;  opake ; 
lustre  shining,  sometimes  pseudo-metallic;  indents  under  the 
edge  of  the  hammer  ;  breaks  with  difficulty  ;  fracture,  foliated 
or  fibrous  ;  streak  and  powder,  grayish  green-;  yields  to  the 
knife:  sp.  gr.  3.15  to  3.38. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  ease,  into  a  grayish 
black  glass. 

Composition.  (Deep  green.)  Silex  47.21  ;  alumine  13.94; 
lime  12.73;  magnesia  21.86;  oxide  of  iron  2.28;  oxide  of 
manganese  0.57  ;  fluoric  acid  0.90;  water  0.44. — Bonsdorf. 

There  is  a  considerable  variety  in  the  composition  of  this 
species. 

Distinctive  characters.  Schorl,  which  it  resembles,  is  much 
harder,  does  not  give  a  green  streak  and  powder,  and  is  gene- 
rally found  in  distinct,  nine-sided  crystals.  It  differs  from 
au<rite  in  being  more  easily  fusible,  softer  and  tougher. 

Hornblende  is  a  very  abundant  mineral.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  primitive  rocks,  but  occurs  more  or  less  in  secondary  for- 
mations. 

It  frequently  enters  into  the  composition  of  granite,  gneiss, 
and  mica  slate,  and  is  an  essential  ingredient  in  syenite  and 
greenstone, 

Localities.  U.  S.  Jerico,  Vt.,  in  long  capillary  crystals* 
— Hall.  Franconia,  Vt.,  in  superb  polished  crystals,  some 
of  which  are  nearly  half  an  inch  broad,  also  in  long  and  slen- 
der crystals,  in  a  hornblende  and  serpentine  rock.  On  the 
Schuyikill,  Penn.,  in  large  masses,  and  in  bladed,  or  acicular 
crystals. — Lea.  Brunswick,  Maine,  fibrous  hornblende  oc- 
curs with  white  granular  limestone. — Cleveland.  Chester, 


What  is  the  colour  of  hornblende  1— What  are  its  distinctive  characters? 
•—With  what  minerals  is  it  associated  1 — Is  it  a  rare,  or  an  abundant  species'! 


156  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Mass.    Newton,  N.  J.    Amity,  Edensville,  and  Willsborough, 
N.  Y.     Litchfield,  Conn.     Cumberland,  R.  I. 

Variety  1.  MASSIVE  HORNBLENDE. 
This  variety  presents  a  crystalline  mass,  consisting  of  long, 
straight,  or  curved  fibrils,  often  intersecting  each  other,  being 
closely  compacted  together.  Sometimes  the  fibrils  are  twisted 
or  curled,  and  appear  like  knots  of  wood,  and  sometimes  like 
tufts  of  hair.  It  is  very  tough,  and  difficult  to  break.  Colours 
as  in  the  species. 

Variety  Z.     HORNBLENDE  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish  black ;  occurs  in 
beds,  more  or  less  extensive ;  texture  slaty,  each  layer  being 
composed  of  fibres,  interlacing,  diverging,  or  curled  into 
knots. 

This  variety  agrees  in  all  its  characters  with  the  massive, 
except  in  its  slaty  structure. 

Variety  3.     BASALTIC   HORNBLENDE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  black,  brownish  black,  or 
jet  black  5  occurs  in  distinct  crystals,  in  lava,  volcanic  scoria, 
and  basalt ;  opake ;  often  moves  the  magnet  5  crystals  some- 
times have  a  brilliant  lustre;  structure  foliated ;  easily  broken ; 
Scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  3.25. 

Chemical  character.     Melts  with  difficulty. 

Composition.  Silex  47;  alumine  26;  lime  8 ;  magnesia 
2;  iron  15. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  of  a  more  intense  black,  and 
has  a  much  stronger  lustre  than  common  hornblende.  Schorl 
is  harder,  and  more  easily  broken.  Its  matrix  also  will  gene- 
rally distinguish  it  from  other  black  crystals. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  other  coun- 
tries, where  basalt  and  volcanic  products  exist. 

Variety  4.     PARGASITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  light  bottle  green ;  occurs 
crystallized  in  six-sided  prisms,  with  dihedral  summits;  also 
in  rounded  crystalline  masses;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  lateral 
planes  of  a  rhombic  prism;  translucent;  scratches  glass :  sp. 
gr.  3.11. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  green  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  42;  alumine  14.1;  lime  14.3;  mag- 
nesia 18.3;  oxide  of  iron  3.5;  of  manganese  1.0;  water  and 
fluoric  acid  3. 

How  does  the  basaltic,  differ  from  the  common  hornblende? 


MINERALOGY.  157 

Distinctive  characters.  This  mineral  resembles  hornblende 
in  every  respect,  except  its  lighter  colour  and  translucency. 

The  specimen  before  me  from  Pargas,  resembles  in  colour 
and  translucency,  some  varieties  of  prehnite. 

Localities.     Pargas,*  in  Finland,  in  calcareous  spar, 

U.  S.     Chester,  Mass. 

Variety  5.     HEDENBERGITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  black,  or  dark 
brown,  powder  pale  brownish  green;  occurs  in  masses  com- 
posed of  shining  plates;  fracture  uneven;  fragments  rhom- 
boidal ;  scratches  carbonate  of  lime;  phosphoresces  by  heat 
and  friction:  sp.  gr.  3.15. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  shining  glass, 
which  is  sometimes  magnetic. 

Composition.  Silex  40.63;  alumine  0.37;  water  16.5; 
protoxide  of  iron  35.25  ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.75  ;  carbonic 
acid  4.93. — Hedenberg. 

Locality.  Tunaberg-,  in  Sweden,  in  calcareous  spar,  with 
iron  pyrites,  quartz,  and  mica. 

This  variety  seems  to  differ  from  common  hornblende, 
chiefly  in  the  form  under  which  it  occurs. 

Pinkerton  quotes  several  authors  to  prove  that  mountains  of 
hornblende  exist  in  several  parts  of  the  world.  Patrin,  he 
says,  observed  in  Siberia,  many  mountains  entirelv  composed 
of  it,  with  occasional  veins,  or  masses  of  granite. 

Species  40.     TREMOLITE. 

Tremolite  occurs  massive,  crystallized,  fibrous,  and  granu- 
lar. Its  colours  are  generally  white,  and  grayish,  or  yellow- 
ish white:  lustre  shining,  vitreous,  or  silky  ;  it  affords  several 
varieties,  depending  chiefly  on  the  different  forms. 

Variety  1.  CRYSTALLIZED  TREMOLITE. 
External  characters.  Colour,  white,  often  with  a  tinge  of 
gray,  yellow,  or  red;  occurs  in  crystals,  which  are  either  very 
flat  four,  six,  or  eight-sided  prisms,  deeply  striated,  or  minute 
fibres,  the  forms  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  determine;  crystals 
seldom  well  defined,  but  commonly  compressed  ;  translucent, 
sometimes  nearly  transparent;  very  brittle;  harsh  to  the 
touch ;  lustre  glistening  or  silky ;  scratches  glass :  sp.  gr. 
about  3. 

*  Whence  the  name  pargasite. 

To  \yhat  species  do  pargasite  and  hedenbergite  belong  ? — What  is  the 
prevailing  coloufr  of  tremofite  ? 
14 


158  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  in  small  particles,  into  a 
porous  white  enamel.  " 

Composition.  (Fibrous.)  Silex  65;  lime  18;  magnesia 
10.33;  water  and  carbonic  acid^6.5;  oxide  of  iron  0.16. — 
Klaproth. 

The  carbonic  acid  in  the  above  analysis  probably  came  from 
the  gange,  which  is  commonly  limestone  or  dolomite. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  may  resemble  asbestos,  but  tre- 
molite  is  very  brittle,  while  asbestos  is  flexible.  It  never  has 
the  green  colour  of  actynolite.  The  foliated  structure  of  stil- 
bite,  and  the  electrical  powers  and  chemical  qualities  of  zeolite, 
will  distinguish  them  from  tremolite. 

Variety  2.     FIBROUS  TREMOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  often  very  pure  and 
beautiful ;  occurs  in  masses  consisting  of  fine  delicate  fibres, 
sometimes  long  and  straight,  or  gently  curved,  and  sometimes 
radiating;  lustre  silky;  fibres  separable  by  the  fingers;  harsh 
to  the  touch  ;  friable  sometimes  between  the  fingers,  in  which 
case  it  is  apt  to  penetrate  the  skin. 
Fig.  115. 


Fig.  115,  represents  the  common 
appearance  of  fibrous  tremolite. 


Distinctive  characters.  This  variety  resembles  fibrous 
gypsum,  but  gypsum  instantly  becomes  opake,  when  heated, 
and  falls  in  pieces. 

Variety  3.     BLADED  TREMOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  or  yellowish,  or  blu- 
ish white;  occurs  in  long  flattened  prismatic  crystals,  resem- 
bling in  form  the  blade  of  a  double-edged  knife;  translucent; 


How  is  tremolite  distinguished  from  asbestos  ? — What  is  the  appearance 
of  fibrous  tremolite  ? — What  are  the  varietiea  of  tremolite  ? 


MINERALOGY.  159 

traversed  by  cross  fissures;  easily  broken;    several   inches 
long. 

These  are  flattened  four  or  six-sided  prisms. 

Variety  4.     PYRALLOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish,  becomes  white  by 
long  exposure;  occurs  massive,  and  in  crystals;  form,  the  flat 
rhombic  prism,  resembling  the  bladcd  variety  of  tremolite; 
crystals  an  inch  or  more  long;  fracture  dull  and  earthy; 
cleaves  into  triangular  prisms,  but  not  with  shining  faces; 
opake,  or  in  thin  laminae;  translucent:  sp.  gr.  2.57. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  black,  then  white,  and  the 
edges  are  reduced  to  a  white  enamel.  In  powder,  phospho- 
resces on  hot  iron. 

Composition.  Silex  56.6;  alumine  3.4;  lime  5.6;  mag- 
nesia 23.4;  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  1.1;  bituminous 
matter  and  loss  6.4. — Nordenskiold. 

Localities.   Pargas,  in  Finland,  in  foliated  limestone. 

U.  S     Kingsbridge,  N.  Y.,  in  limestone. — Nuttall. 

Variety  5.     CALAMITE.J 

External  characters.  Colour,  light  green;  occurs  in 
rhombic  prisms,  striated  longitudinally;  translucent;  cleavage 
parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  rhombic  prism  ;  soft;  resembles  tre- 
molite in  the  form  of  its  crystals,  which  are  traversed  by 
fissures. 

Locality.     Normark,  in  Sweden,  with  oxide  of  iron. 

Tremolite  is  a  common  and  abundant  mineral.  It  is  found 
m  limestone,  and  particularly  in  that  variety  called  dolomite. 
It  was  first  found  in  the  mountains  of  Tremola,  in  Switzer- 
land, whence  the  name. 

Localities.  Its  foreign  locations  are  very  numerous.  Beau- 
tiful specimens  from  St.  Gothard,  in  Switzerland. 

U.  S.  Litchfield  and  Washington,  Conn.  Beautiful  speci- 
mens of  the  bladed  and  fibrous  varieties  are  found  at  both 
places  in  dolomite.  Also,  at  Milford,  Canaan,  and  Goshen, 
Conn.  Newbury  and  Bolton,  Mass.  Great  Barrington  and 
Sheffield,  Mass.  At  Sheffield  the  fibres  are  two  feet  long. — 
Dwrey.  Wardsborough  and  Bellows  Falls,  Vt.  Near  Bal- 
timore, Md.  East  Marlborough,  Penn.,  fibres  a  foot  long. — • 

*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  change  by  fire,  in  allusion  to  its  turning 
black  or  white  under  the  blowpipe, 
t  From  Calamus,  Latin,  a  reed,  from  the  appearance  of  the  crystal. 

Is  tremolite  a  common,  or  rare  mineral  ? — Whence  comes  the  name  tre- 

n/)lite  ? 


160  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Jessup.     Kingsbridge   and  Tarry  town,    N.  Y.     Smithfield, 
R.  I.,  very  beautiful.—  Webb      West  Marlborough,  Fenn. 

Species  41.     ACTYNOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  sometimes  deep  and 
beautiful,  also  dark  green  and  brownish;  occurs  in  single, 
long,  straight,  four-sided  flattened  prisms,  crossing  each  other 
at  various  angles,  and  in  fibrous  masses,  either  radiated  or 
curved  ;  lustre  highly  shining  ;  crystals  often  deeply  striated  ; 
translucent;  scratches  glass;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  from  3  to  3.30. 

Chemical  characters.  On  the  first  application  of  the  heat, 
it  turns  deep  brown,  afterwards  becomes  ash  gray,  with  the 
edges  glazed  with  a  black  enamel ;  tinges  borax  light  green. 

Composition.  Silex  50;  alumine  0.75:  lime  9.75;  mag- 
nesia 19.75  ;  oxide  of  iron  11 ;  oxide  of  chrome  3  ;  of  man- 
ganese 0.5  ;  potash  0.5  ;  water  5.0. — Laugier. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  colour  will  distinguish  it  from 
hornblende  and  tremolite,  both  of  which  it  very  nearly  resem- 
bles in  form.  Epidoteis  of  a  lighter,  or  yellowish  green,  and 
zeolite  is  grayish  white. 

Variety  1.     BLADED  ACTYNOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  deep  green,  often  of  various 
shades  in  the  same  crystal ;  occurs  in  long,  slender,  flat  four 
or  six-sided  crystals,  with  alternate  sharp  lateral  edges,  and 
often  deeply  striated  ;  summits  commonly  incomplete  ;  trans- 
lucent; lustre  shining;  brittle;  commonly  occurs  in  talc, 
crystals  crossing  each  other  at  various  angles. 
Fig.  116. 


Fig.  11 6.  A  flat  six-sided  prism,  the  common  form 


ig.  117. 


Fig.  117.     The  same  with  the  lateral  edges  trun 
cated. 


What  is  the  colour  of  actynolite?— How  is  it  distinguished  from  tremolite 
and  hornblende  ?    What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  actynolite  ? 


MINERALOGV.  161 

Variety  2.     ACICULAR  ACTYNOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  lighter  green  than  the  bin- 
ded ;  occurs  in  capillary  crystals,  closely  aggregated,  and 
either  parallel,  intersecting,  diverging,  or  radiating  from  a 
centre ;  lustre  glistening ;  opake ;  harsh  to  the  touch;  brittle 
and  inelastic. 

Variety  3.     GLASSY  ACTYNOLITE. 

It  differs  from  the  above  variety  in  possessing  a  vitreous,  or 
giassy  lustre. 

Variety  4.     ASBESTIFORM  ACTYNOLITE. 

External  characters*  Colour,  greenish  gray ;  occurs  in 
slender,  somewhat,  elastic,  fibrous  crystals,  closely  aggre- 
gated; lustre  silky;  fibres  parallel  or  diverging,  and  easily 
separable  by  the  ringers  ;  very  brittle. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  amianthus,  but  is 
easily  known  from  it,  by  its  brittleness. 

Variety  5.     MASSIVE  ACTYNOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  green ;  occurs  in  lamellar 
masses,  composed  of  granular  concretions ;  structure  foliated ; 
also  disseminated  in  other  minerals. 

Actynolite  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  as  granite,  mica  slate, 
and  in  veins  of  talc. 

Localities.  Tyrol,  and  St.  Gothard,  in  long  six-sided  prisms, 
Norway,  Saxony,  Piedmont,  England,  Scotland,  and  most 
other  countries. 

U.  S.  Bolton,  Middlefield,  Hawlev,  and  Chelmsford,  Mass. 
Wind  ham,  Vt.  in  compressed  four-sided  prisms,  sometimes 
five  inches  long. — Hall.  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  all  its  varie- 
ties.— Cleveland.  Near  New- Haven,  and  also  at  Litch field 
and  Canton,  Conn.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  in  all  its  varieties. 
Concord,  Penn.  in  laro-e  masses. — Conrad.  On  the  Island  of 
New- York,  N.  Y.  Near  Philadelphia,  Penn. 

Species  4  If     CHIASTOLITE.     MACLE. 

External  characters.  Colours  of  the  exterior,  white,  or 
yellowish  white;  of  the  interior,  block,  or  bluish  black;  oc- 
curs in  crystals  only  ;  form  four-sided  prisms,  which  appear 
square,  but  are  slightly  rhombic  ;  each  crystal,  when  broken 
across,  exhibits  another  crystal  running  through  its  axis, 
whose  sides  correspond  with  those  of  the  exterior  ;  sometimes, 
from  the  angles  of  the  inner  crystal  there  runs  a  small  black 

What  are  the  varieties  of  actynolite  ?— Is  actynolite  a  common  mineral? 
J4" 


i62  INTRODUCTION  TO 

or  bluish  line,  which  reaches  the  corresponding  angle  of  the 
outer  crystal,  or  crust,  thus  forming  four  lines  of  the  colour  of 
the  inner  square,  reaching  to  each  corner  of  the  outer  one  and 
dividing  it  diagonally  into  four  parts.  In  some  crystals,  at 
each  corner,  and  just  under  the  surface  of  the  external  rhomb, 
there  is  also  a  small  black  crystal,  which  is  joined  by  the  line 
running  from  the  central  square,  or  rhomb;  so  that  the  crys- 
tals consist  of  five  rhombic  prisms,  of  a  black  colour,  one  in 
the  centre,  and  one  at  each  corner,  imbedded  in  a  grayish 
white  substance,  the  whole  appearing  externally,  as  one 
square,  or  slightly  rhombic  prism;  structure  lamellar; 
scratches  glass ;  crystals  often  several  inches  long :  sp.  gr. 
2.94. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  rnelts  with  borax 
into  a  transparent  glass. 

It  is  found  imbedded  in  clay  slate,  and  less  frequently  in 
mica  slate. 

Localities.  Andalusia,  in  Spain,  where  it  is  said  first  to 
have  been  found.  Hence  Mohs  calls  this  mineral  Andalu- 
site.  It  is  found  also  in  the  Tyrol ;  in  Brittany;  in  Aberdeen- 
shire,  in  Scotland.  In  Cumberland,  and  several  other  places 
in  England. 

U.  S.  Lancaster,  Westford,  and  Stirling,  Mass,  in  abun- 
dance, and  under  a  variety  of  forms,  in  dark  blue  argillite. 
Bellows  Falls,  Croyden,  Cornish,  Charleston,  Langdon,  and 
Allstead,  N.  H.  Brunswick  and  Georgetown,  Maine.  Litch- 
field,  in  Conn,  in  fine  crystals. 

Composition.     Chiefly  silex,  alumine,  and  potash. 

Species  42.     IIYPERSTHENE. 

.  External  characters.  Colour,  blackish  green,  or  dark 
brown  ;  occurs  massive  ;  structure  lamellar;  cleavage  paral- 
lel to  the  sides,  and  shorter  diagonals  of  a  rhombic  prism ; 
lustre,  when  viewed  in  certain  directions,  greenish,  in  others, 
copper  red,  and  strongly  metallic ;  opake  or  translucent  on 
the  edges  ;  powder,  dark  greenish  gray ;  yields  to  the  knife 
slightly,  scratches  glass. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  on  the  sharp  edges;  with 
borax  gives  a  dark  green  glass 

Composition.  Silex,  54.25;  magnesia,  14.0  ;  alumine,  2.25  ; 
lime,  15;  oxide  of  iron,  24.5;  water  1. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Hypersthene  was  first  found  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  hence  has  been  called  Labrador  hornblende. 

What  is  the  colour  of  hypersthene  ? 


MINERALOGY.  163 

It  occurs,  forming  a  constituent  of  a  rock,  with  Labrador  fel 
spar.  It  is  also  found  in  Greenland. 

U.  S.  On  Brandywine  creek,  Penn.  colour  dark  green; 
lustre  metallic. — Jessup.  Hingham,  Mass,  with  hornblende. 
Essex,  N.  Y.  crystals  two  or  three  inches  long,  colour  gray- 
ish brown. — Hall.  Warwick. 

Uses.  It  is  sometimes  cut  and  polished  for  ringstones,  and 
broaches. — Cleveland. 

Species  43.  METALLOIDAL  DIALLAGE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  bottle,  emerald,  or  olive 
green,  metallic  gray,  brownish,  or  nearly  white ;  occurs  mas- 
sive ;  structure  lamellar,  sometimes  curved  ;  lustre  metallic  ; 
opake  5  colours  suddenly  appear  and  disappear  as  the  speci- 
men is  turned  towards  the  light,  in  this  respect  resembling 
the  Labrador  felspar :  sp.  gr.  about  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  a  blackish 
enamel. 

Composition.  Silex  41  ;  alumine  3 ;  lime  1  ;  magnesia  29  ; 
oxide  of  iron  14;  water  10. — Drappier. 

It  is  commonly  found  in  serpentine. 

Localities.     Tyrol,  Saxony,  Scotland,  England. 

U.  S.  Near  Haverstraw  Bay,  N.  Y.—Schaefer.  Middle- 
field,  Mass. 

Species  44.     GREEN  DIALLAGE.     SMARAGDITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brilliant  emerald  green,  or 
grass  green;  occurs  massive  and  disseminated;  structure  fo- 
liated; cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  and  diagonals  of  a 
slightly  rhombic  prism;  opake  or  translucent;  lustre  of  the 
lamina?,  pearly  or  silky  :  scratches  carbonate  of  lime  :  sp.  gr. 
about  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  a  gray 
or  greenish  enamel. 

Composition.  Silex  50  ;  alumine  21 ;  lime  13;  magnesia 
3;  with  a  little  oxide  of  iron  and  chrome. —  Vauquelin. 

It  seldom  or  never  occurs  in  distinct  crystals. 

Localities.  On  the  banks  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  in  saus- 
surite.  Near  Turin.  Corsica  and  Switzerland. 

17!  8.  Crown  Point,  N.  Y. — Gibbs.  New-Haven,  Conn, 
in  serpentine. — Hall. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  green  diallage  7 — Does  it  occur  in  crystals,  or 
not? 


164  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  44.     ASBESTOS. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  mineral,  which  differ 
considerably  in  their  external  characters,  but  they  generally 
agree  in  possessing  a  fibrous  structure,  more  or  less  a  vegeta- 
ble appearance,  and  in  being  infusible  in  a  common  fire. 


1.       AMIANTHUS. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  silver  gray, 
greenish,  and  reddish ;  occurs  in  long  threads  or  plates,  easily 
separable;  lustre  silky;  somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch; 
soft,  flexible,  and  elastic;  fibres  usually  straight,  often  resem- 
bling raw  flax,  and  sometimes  the  finest  silk. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  white,  brittle,  and  opake, 
and  then  melts  into  a  white  enamel ;  gives  a  diaphanous  glass 
with  borax. 

Composition.  Silex  59 ;  alumine  3 :  lime  6 :  magnesia 
29.— Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  amianthoide,  byssolite 
and  common  asbestos.  The  two  first  are  fusible  in  a  black 
enamel,  and  tinge  borax  green.  Asbestos  is  inflexible ;  the 
others  are  flexible. 

It  is  found  in  veins,  in  serpentine. 

Localities.  Corsica,  in  great  abundance.  Savoy,  fibres  a 
foot  long.  Pyrenees,  Cornwall,  &c. 

U.  S.  Hoboken,  N.  J.  Staten  Island,  N.  Y. ;  it  is  uncom- 
monly beautiful.  The  fibres  are  sometimes  more  than  two 
feet  Jong.— Pierce  and  Torrey.  New-Haven,  Conn,  in  ser- 
pentine; also  at  New  Milford.  Some  specimens  are  exceed- 
ingly soft  and  fine.  Kellyvale,  Vt.  Mount  Holly,  Mass. 
very  abundant. — Hall. 

Uses.  It  is  said  that  the  ancients  preserved  the  ashes  of 
their  dead,  by  wrapping  their  bodies  in  cloth  made  of  this  sub- 
stance, before  they  were  committed  to  the  funeral  pile.  It 
was  also  used  for  incombustible  wicks;  but  is  now  considered 
chiefly  as  a  curiosity. 

In  Siberia  it  is  said  to  be  manufactured  into  various  articles, 
as  gloves,  purses,  &c.  Incombustible  paper,  has  also  been 
made  of  it,  and  if  it  be  a  fact,  that  ultra-marine  blue  will  "  stand 
proof  by  fire,"  as  it  was  anciently  advertised  to  do,  we  should 
have  the  materials  for  making  incombustible  -records,  an  im- 
provement of  great  consequence  to  the  world. 

Cloth  is  made  by  mixing  the  amianthus  with  flax,  and  spin- 
ning and  weaving  the  mixture  in  the  usual  way,  after  which 

In  what  form  is  amianthus  found?— What  are  the  uses  of  amianthus? 


MINERALOGY.  165 

the  flax  is  burned  out,  and  the  incombustible  cloth  remains. 
When  such  cloth  requires  cleaning,  it  may  be  thrown  into  a 
fire,  and  moderately  heated  for  a  few  minutes.  A  strong  heat 
would  render  it  brittle. 

Variety  2.     COMMON  ASBESTOS. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  gray,  green,  or 
yellowish  gray,  occurs  massive,  composed  of  fibres  of  various 
lengths,  either  straight,  curved,  or  radiating  from  a  centre ; 
often  appears  nearly  compact,  from  the  close  aggregation  of 
its  fibres ;  fracture  splintery  or  fibrous;  fibres  inflexible  and 
inelastic ;  translucent  on  the  edges ;  lustre  shining :  sp.  gr. 
from  2.54  to  3. 

Chemical  characters.     Easily  fusible  into  a  dark  enamel. 

Composition.  Silex  63.5;  magnesia  16.0;  lime  12.8; 
alumine  1.1  :  oxide  of  iron  6. — Bergman. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  inelasticity  will  distinguish  it 
from  amianthus,  and  its  softness,  particularly  in  powder,  from 
tremolite  and  actynolite. 

It  is  usually  found  in  serpentine. 

Localities.     Sweden,  Hungary,  Uralian  mountains,  &c. 

U.  S.  On  the  summit  of  the  Green  mountains,  Vt. — Hall. 
New  Castle  County,  Del.,  in  abundance.  On  the  Island  of 
New  York,  N.  Y.  Also  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson.  Wash- 
ington, and  near  New-Haven,  Conn. 

Variety  3.     MOUNTAIN  CORK. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  brown,  yellowish 
brown,  or  pale  yellow ;  occurs  in  amorphous,  or  flattish  pieces ; 
structure  fibrous,  with  the  fibres  interlacing  each  other  in 
every  direction;  it  is  somewhat  elastic,  and  so  light  as  to 
swim  in  water. 

Variety  4.     LIGNIFORM  ASBESTOS. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brownish,  or  yellowish ;  oc- 
curs massive,  structure  fibrous,  often  much  resembling  chips 
of  wood;  it  is  hard,  the  fibres  rigid,  sometimes  straight,  but 
often  interwoven,  curved,  or  radiated ;  opake  and  dull :  sp.  gr. 
about  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  difficulty,  into  a  black 
slag. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Mount  Holly,  Vt.  Newlin  township, 
Pennsylvania. 

What  is  said  of  incombustible  cloth  and  paper?— How  is  common  as- 
bestos distinguished  from  amianthus  7 — What  are  the  varieties  of  common 
asbestos  ? 


166  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  5.     MOUNTAIN  LEATHER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  reddish  white,  or 
reddish;  occurs  in  flat  layers  composed  of  fibres,  straight,  or 
curved;  opake;  layers  sometimes  separable;  has  more  or 
less  the  aspect  of  leather. 

Locality.     Washington,  Conn. 

Variety  5.     MOUNTAIN  PAPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white;  lustre  silky,  or  pear- 
ly ;  separable  into  thin  layers,  having- the  aspect  of  paper. 

Locality.     Washington,  Conn. 

Species  46.     SAPPHIRE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blue,  red,  violet,  yellow, 
green,  and  chatoyant ;  also  limpid:  occurs  crystallized,  and 
in  rolled  pebbles,  and  angular  fragments;  primary  form  the 
rhomb;  secondary  Corms  the  regular  six-sided  prism,  often 
truncated,  and  the  double  six-sided  pyramid,  or  dodecahedron  ; 
also  modified  by  truncation  ;  transparent  or  translucent ;  hard- 
ness only  inferior  to  that  of  the  diamond  ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
cleavage  indistinct :  sp.  gr.  about  4. 
Fig.  118. 


Fig.  118.  A  double  six-sided  pyramid. 


A  short  six-sided  prism,  with  the  solid  angles  alternately 
truncated,  is  also  a  common  form. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  loses  its  colour. 
With  borax  slowly  dissolves  into  a  colourless  glass. 

Composition.  Alurnine98.5;  lime  0.5  ;  oxide  of  iron  1. — 
— Klaproth. 

The  varieties  of  sapphire  depend  on  its  different  colours. 

Variety  1.    BLUE  SAPPHIRE.   (Oriental  Sapphire.) 
External  characters.  Colour,  azure,  or  indigo  blue ;  trans- 
lucent, or  transparent. 

The  colour  of  this  variety  often  differs  in  the  same  speci- 
men, some  parts  being  deep  blue,  while  others  are  nearly 
colourless. 

What  are  the  colours  of  the  sapphire? — What  are  the  forms  of  its  crys- 
tals ? — What  are  the  varieties  of  sapphire  ? — What  is  the  composition  of 
the  sapphire  ? 


MINERALOGY.  i67 

Variety  2.     RED  SAPPHIRE.  (Oriental  Ruby.) 
External  characters.    Colour,  blood-red,  passing  into  auro- 
ra, or  rose-red ;  cleavage  more  distinct  than  in  the  blue  va- 
riety •  sometimes  chatoyant,  translucent,  or  transparent. 

Variety  3.  ASTERIATED  SAPPHIRE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish,  or  violet.  When 
cut  in  a  certain  manner,  it  shows  a  silvery  star,  of  six  rays. 

The  term  oriental,  merely  signifies  that  the  stone  comes 
from  the  east,  and  as  most  of  the  gems  come  from  the  eastern 
quarter  of  the  globe,  dealers  in  these  articles  often  attach  this 
epithet  to  the  name  of  the  stone,  in  order  to  raise  its  value. 

In  addition  to  the  above  varieties,  lapidaries  make  the  fol- 
lowing distinctions.  The  violet  sapphire,  is  called  Oriental 
Ameihyst,  the  yellow  sapphire,  Oriental  Topaz.  Green  sap- 
phire, Oriental  Emerald. 

Sapphires  are  found  in  alluvial  earths,  and  in  the  sand  of 
rivers,  generally  at  the  foot  of  primitive  mountains.  Their 
matrix  is  primitive  rock,  as  granite  and  gneiss,  though  it  has 
seldom  been  found  in  its  native  situation. 

Localities.  The  finest  are  found  in  Pegu,  on  the  Island  of 
Ceylon,  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Ava,  in  the  East  Indies.  It 
occurs  also  in  Bohemia,  France.  Switzerland,  and  Portugal. 

The  sapphire  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  was  the 
fifth  stone  in  order,  on  the  high-priest's  pectoral,  or  breast- 
plate of  judgment,  having  the  name  of  Simeon  inscribed 
upon  it. 

Pliny  says,  that  the  best  sapphires  come  from  Media :  per- 
haps from  Mount  Sephar,  mentioned  by  Moses.  Calmet  says, 
that  Shaphir  in  Hebrew,  which  he  translates  sapphire,  signifies 
Beauty,  and  that  the  orientals  had  an  extraordinary  esteem 
for  this  stone.  Those  who  wore  it  about  them  thought  it  to 
be  the  occasion  of  their  happiness  and  good  fortune. 

Uses.  The  sapphire  is  ranked  among  the  most  valuable  of 
gems.  It  yields  in  hardness  only  to  the  diamond,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  the  finest  kind  of  jewelry.  It  is  also  employed  for 
jewelling  the  pivot  holes  of  chronometers,  and  other  astro- 
nomical instruments. 

No  ancient  engravings  exist  on  this  stone,  probably  because 
its  hardness  is  such,  as  to  resist,  like  the  diamond,  the  ancient 
means  of  engraving  gems. 

Since  diamond  dust  has  been  used  for  cutting  hard  stones, 

What  does  the  term  oriental  signify,  as  applied  to  the  sapphire?— Where 
are  the  finest  sapphires  found  7— In  what  situations  are  these  stones 
found? 


163  INTRODUCTION  TO 

the  sapphire  has  been  employed  by  a  few  artists.  Caldore 
engraved  a  portrait  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  on  a  sapphire, 
which  was  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  one  or 
two  German  artists  have  tried  their  skill  upon  it. 

The  red  variety  is  most  esteemed  under  the  name  of  orien- 
tal ruby. 

The  price  of  the  oriental  ruby  is  estimated  by  carats,  after 
the  manner  of  estimating  the  diamond. — (See  Diamond.) 

A  perfect  ruby,  above  three  and  a  half  carats,  or  fourteen 
grains,  is  more  valuable  than  a  diamond  of  the  same  weight. 
If  the  weight  be  one  carat,  it  is  worth  ten  guineas,  two  carats, 
forty  guineas,  three  carats,  one  hundred  and  fifty  guineas,  six 
carats,  above  one  thousand  guineas.  It  is  said,  that  in  the 
throne  of  the  Great  Mogul,  there  are  one  hundred  and  eight 
oriental  rubies,  weighing  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
carats  each. 

A  blue  sapphire  of  good  quality,  weighing  ten  carats,  is 
worth  fifty  guineas,  one  of  twenty  carats,  is  worth  two  hun- 
dred guineas. 

Among  the  crown  jewels  of  France  is  a  ruby  weighing  one 
hundred  and  sixty-six  carats.  At  ten  guineas  the  carat,  this 
would  be  worth  two  hundred  seventy-five  thousand,  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty  guineas.  It  is  said  that  the  lapidaries  expose 
the  light-blue  varieties  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  when  they 
become  white,  and  are  worn  instead  of  the  diamond. 

The  sapphire  is  cut  with  diamond  dust,  and  polished  with 
emery. 

Species  47.     CORUNDUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish,  grayish  green, 
reddish,  yellowish,  bluish,  brown,  or  white ;  occurs  in  six- 
-  sided  crystals,  in  rolled  pieces,  also  granular  and  amorphous ; 
structure  foliated  ;  cleaves  into  rhomboidal  fragments  ;  lustre 
shining;  translucent  or  opake;  sp.  gr.  nearly  4;  hardness 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  sapphire. 

Chemical  char  act  t  rs.  Infusible.  Fusible  by  the  compound 
blow  pipe. — Silli'm.an. 

Composition.  Alumine  85.5  ;  silex  7  ;  oxide  of  iron  14. — 
Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  extreme  hardness  of  this  mine-, 
ral,  will  distinguish  it  from  all  which  it  resembles. 

Localities.     India,  in  the  kingdom  of  Ava,  on  the  coast  of 

How  is  the  value  of  the  sapphire  estimated  7— What  is  the  colour  of  co- 
rundum?—In  what  form  does  it  occur? 


MINERALOGY.  169 

Malabar.     At  Bengal,  in  China,  Thibet,  &c.     It  is  accompa- 
nied with  garnet,  fibrolite,  zircon,  and  magnetic  iron. 

That  of  China  and  Ava  is  brown,  or  greenish,  and  some- 
times nearly  black.  That  of  the  Carnatic  is  blue,  or  reddish 
purple.  That  of  Thibet  is  reddish  brown,  often  coated  with 
steatite. 

The  variety  which  comes  from  China  was  formerly  called 
adamantine  spar. 

U.  S.  Laurens  District,  S.  C.  a  six-sided  prism  has  been 
found.  Litchfield,  Conn,  in  cyanite.  It  is  grayish  blue,  and 
occurs  massive,  and  in  six-sided  prisms. — Brace.  Newton, 
N.  J.  in  fine  crystals.  Warwick,  N.  Y. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  like  emery,  for  the  polishing  of  hard 
stones  and  metals. 

Variety  1.     EMERY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blackish,  or  bluish  gray, 
powder  brownish  black ;  occurs  massive  ;  structure  finely 
granular;  fracture  uneven,  or  splintery;  opake ;  lustre  a 
little  glistening,  or  somewhat  metallic;  hardness  equal  to 
corundum;  conducts  electricity:  sp.  gr.  4. 

Composition.  Its  constituents  are  the  same  as  those  of  co- 
rundum. 

Localities.  Saxony,  in  steatite.  Naxos,  in  the  Archipelago, 
where  it  is  found  in  abundance,  in  fragments,  or  rolled  pieces, 
at  the  foot  of  a  primitive  mountain.  Italy,  Spain,  East  Indies, 
and  Ireland. 

The  emery  of  commerce  is  chiefly  from  Naxos. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  almost  universally  in  cutting  and 
polishing  stones,  steel,  &c.  For  this  purpose  it  is  reduced  to 
powder  in  a  steel  mill. 

Even  the  sapphire  and  oriental  ruby,  the  hardest  substances, 
nsxt  to  the  diamond,  yield  to  emery,  when  placed  on  the  lapi- 
dary's wheel. 

Species  48.     DIASPORE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish  gray ;  occurs  mas- 
sive, consisting  of  laminae  slightly  curved,  and  easily  separa- 
ted ;  occurs  also  in  cellular  masses,  consisting  of  slender  crys- 
tals; lustre  pearly ;  translucent  in  thin  laminsc  ;  also,  though 
rarely,  in  separate  crystals,  in  form  of  a  doubly  oblique  prism : 
sp.  gr.  3.43. 

*  From  the  Greek,  in  allusion  to  its  being  dispersed  by  heat. 

Of  what  species  is  emery  a  variety  ? 
15 


170  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  In  the  flame  of  a  candle,  it  crackles, 
and  is  dispersed  into  minute  fragments,  or  spangles.  It  is  in* 
fusible  alone;  with  borax  melts  into  a  colourless  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  80;  water  17;  iron  3. —  Vauquclin 

Nothing  is  known  of  its  geological  situation. 

When  heated  in  a  retort,  it  decrepitates  violently,  and  splits 
into  small  white  brilliant  scales. — Phillips. 

Species  49.     TURQUOISE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  bluish  green,  passing  into 
sky  blue,  and  apple  green  ;  occurs  in  reniform  masses,  from 
the  size  of  a  nut  to  that  of  a  goose's  egg :  opake ;  powder 
white;  lustre  waxy,  or  dull ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  not  so  hard 
as  quartz ;  decomposes  on  the  outside,  when  it  resembles 
porcelain  clay :  sp.  gr.  about  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone;  with  borax  melts 
into  a  limpid  glass.  Suffers  no  change  with  acids. 

Composition.  Alumine  73;  water  18;  oxide  of  copper  4.5; 
oxide  of  iron  4. — Johns. 

Localities.     Persia  and  Turkey,  in  alluvial  soils. 

A  kind  of  turquoise,  which  for  distinction  is  called  occiden- 
tal turquoise,  is  found  near  the  town  of  Simore,  in  Lower 
Languedoc.  This  is  supposed  to  consist  of  horns,  or  teeth  of 
animals,  penetrated  and  coloured  by  oxide,  or  carbonate  of 
copper.  This  variety  consists  chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

Uses.  The  oriental  turquoise  receives  a  fine  polish,  and 
is  much  esteemed  for  ringstones,  bracelets,  watch  ornaments, 
&c.  It  is  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Persians,  who  work  it  into 
handles  for  sabres,  &c. 

The  ancients,  especially  the  Egyptians,  held  this  stone  in 
great  estimation.  Some  fine  engravings  were  executed  on  it, 
but  it  was  considered  much  too  soft  for  this  purpose/ 

This  stone  is  so  nearly  imitated  by  the  French  lapidaries, 
as  to  make  it  difficult  to  discover  the  difference. 

Species  50.     GIBBSITE.* — Torrey. 

,  External  characters.  Colours,  greenish,  yellowish,  or 
grayish  white;  occurs  in  irregular  stalactical  masses,  Avith  a 
knobby  surface,  from  one  tolthree  inches  in  length,  and  an 
inch  in  diameter;  presenting  an  aggregation  of  elongated 

*  In  honour  of  Col.  Gibbs. 

What  is  the  colour  of  turquoise  ? — In  what  form  does  it  occur  ? — "V  hat 
is  the  use  of  turquoise  ?— -What  is  the  colour  and  what  the  form  of  Gibb- 
•he  7 


MINERALOGY.  171 

tuberous  masses,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  prehnite. 
structure  fibrous,  radiating  from  the  centre;  translucent  on 
the  edges;  easily  reduced  to  ponder;  harder  than  calcareous 
spar:  sp.  gr.  2.40. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  whitens.  Does  not 
effervesce  with  acids. 

Com.position.     Alnmine64.8;  water  34.7. — Torrey. 

This  is  a  new  mineral. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Richmond,  Mass,  in  a  neglected  mine 
of  brown  haematite,  where  it  was  first  discovered  by  Dr.  Em- 
mons.  Also  at  Pittsfiekl,  Mass. 

Species  5 1.     FIBROLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  or  grayish  white ; 
occurs  in  minute  fibres,  closely  united,  and  crossing  each  other 
in  various  directions;  harder  than  quartz;  form  indetermi- 
nate ;  electric  by  friction :  sp.  gr.  3.2. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible.  Emits  a  phosphoric  light, 
when  two  pieces  are  rubbed  together. 

Composition.  Alumine  58.25;  silex  38;  iron  0.75. — 
Chcnevix. 

Localities.  It  is  found  with  corundum  in  the  Carnatic  and 
China.  It  is  a  rare  mineral. 

U.  S.  Cummington,  Mass. — Nuttall.  Saybrook,  Conn. — 
Nut  tall. 

Species  52.     FINITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  blackish  brown,  or 
gray  ;  occurs  in  crystals  only;  form  the  regular  six-sided 
prism,  variously  modified  by  truncation  :  sometimes  four  of 
its  sides  are  extended,  while  the  others  are  diminished,  giving 
it  the  aspect  of  a  four-sided  prism  with  bevelled  edges;  some- 
times it  is  truncated  so  as  to  appear  as  a  twelve-sided  prism ; 
structure  foliated  ;  lustre  glistening,  sometimes  slightly  metal- 
lic: fracture  splintery;  powder  unctuous;  odour  argillaceous; 
opnke  or  translucent  on  the  edges:  sp.  gr.  2.98 ;  yields  to  the 
knife. 

Fig.  119. 


Fig.  119.     A  twelve-sided  prism  ;  or  a  six-sided 
prism  so  truncated  as  to  give  twelve  faces. 


*  Because  it  occurs  in  fibres. 
Where  was  Gibbsite  first  discovered  ?— What  is  the  appearance  of  pinite1? 


.72  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  glazed  on  the 
edges. 

Composition.  Alumine  63.75  ;  silex  25.9 ;  oxide  of  iron 
6.75. — Klaproth, 

Distinctive  characters.  The  form  of  its  crystals,  which  often 
appear  round,  will  distinguish  it  from  most  other  minerals. 
Some  specimens  have  the  aspect  of  mica.  It  is  softer  than 
scapolite  or  cyanite. 

Localities.  Saxony,  in  a  mine  called  Pini,  whence  its 
name.  France,  Savoy,  Cornwall,  &c. 

U.  S.  Hacldam,  Conn,  in  a  micaceous  rock,  crystals  seve- 
ral inches  long. — Silliman.  Bellows  Falls,  N.  H.  in  cylin- 
drical crystals. — Hall.  Lancaster,  Mass,  in  six-sided  prisms. 

Species  53.     KYANITE.     CYANITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  azure  blue,  passing  into 
light  blue,  or  bluish  white;  also  bluish  green,  grayish  white, 
and  reddish  ;  colours  often  vary  in  the  same  crystal,  from  deep 
blue,  running  in  veins,  to  bluish  white  5  occurs  in  masses, 
composed  of  a  confused  aggregation  of  crystals  ;  also  in  dis- 
tinct crystals;  form,  four,  or  eight-sided  prisms,  greatly  com- 
pressed, and  having  two  brond  shining  faces:  translucent  or 
opake ;  lustre  pearly;  scratches  glass;  yields  a  little  to  the 
knife :  sp.  gr.  3.50. 

Fig.  120. 


Fig.  120.     A  four-sided  lamellar  prism,  with 
two  broad  and  two  narrow  faces. 


Chemical  characters.     Infusible,  but  turns  white. 

Composition.  Alumine  55.5 ;  silex  43 ;  oxide  of  iron  0.5. 
— Laugier. 

Cyanite  or  Sappare,  generally  occurs  in  long,  imperfect 
crystals  closely  aggregated,  and  crossing,  or  standing  on  each 
other,  so  as  to  present  a  singular  and  curious  aspect.  Some 
of  the  crystals  are  curved,  others  are  corrugated,  or  wrinkled, 
as  though  they  had  been  pressed  endwise,  or  had  not  room  to 
*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  blue. 

What  is  the  composition  of  pinite? — What  is  the  colour  of  cyanite  ?- 
Why  is  this  mineral  called  cyanite? — Does  cyanite  occur  in  distinct,  or  in 
aggregated  crystals  ?-^-Is  this  a  common  or  rare  mineral  ? 


MINERALOGY'. 


173 


stretch  themselves  at  full  length  ;  others  are  pressed  into  trian- 
gular shapes,  &c. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  especially  in  granite. 

Localities.     Switzerland,  Tyrol,  Spain,  and  Hungary. 

U.  S.  Several  places  in  Maryland.  Chester  County,  Del- 
aware County,  and  several  other  places  in  Penn.  Litchfield. 
H mvinton,  Middle  H:\ddam,  and  near  Ne\v-Haven,  Conn. 
That  of  Litchfield  is  of  a  fine  azure  blue.  That  of  Haddam, 
is  brown.  Chesterfield,  Mass,  imperfect  crystals,  sometimes 
two  feet  lonjr. —  Webster.  Con  way,  Granville,  Deerfield,  and 
Pla  infield,  Mass.  Grafton,  Norwich,  and  Bellows  Falls,  Vt. 
Orford,  N.  H.  East  Mariborough,  and  East  Bradford,  Penn. 
A  black  variety  is  found  in  N.  Carolina. 

Species  54.     STAUROTIDE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  reddish  brown  ;  occurs  crys- 
tallized, in  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  dihedral  summits, 
often  variously  modified  by  truncation  ;  crystals  often  cross, 
or  intersect  each  other;  lustre,  sometimes  shining,  with  a 
smooth  surface,  and  sometimes  rough  and  dull ;  scratches 
quartz  ;  opake  or  translucent. 
Fig.  121. 


Fig.  121. 
form. 


A  single  six-sided  prism,  the  common 


Fig.  122. 


Fig.  122.    Two  six-sided  prisms  united 
•  in  the  form  of  a  cross.     This  is  not  an  un- 
common form. 


Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone ;  dissolves  slowly  with 
borax,  giving  it  a  greenish  tinge. 

Composition.  Alumine  52.25;  silex  27;  oxide  of  iron 
18.50  ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.25. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.     Its  colour  resembles  the  garnet, 


What  is  the  colour  of  staurotide ? — Under  what  form  does  its  crystals 
occur? 

15* 


174  INTRODUCTION  TO 

but  its  form  and  infusibility  will  distinguish  them.  Titanite 
has  a  metallic  lustre  and  a  different  form,  and  pinite  differs 
from  it  in  form  and  colour. 

Staurotide  is  found  most  frequently  in  mica  slate,  and  some- 
times in  granite  and  gneiss. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Bolton,  Litchfield,  Harwinton,  and 
Haddam,  Conn.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  Sheffield,  Northfield, 
Cummington,  and  Middlefield,  Mass.  Chester,  and  Putney, 
Vt.  Near  the  city  of  New  York,  N.  Y.  Winthrop,  Sidney, 
Paris,  and  Hallo  well,  Maine.  Chesterfield,  Mass.  Fran- 
conia,  N.  H. 

Species  55.     AUTOMOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  dark  bluish  green,  or  black- 
ish green;  occurs  in  octohedrons,  or  hexahedrons,  variously 
modified  by  truncation  ;  faces  of  the  crystals  often  unequal, 
sometimes  mackled  ;  cleavage  parallel  to  all  its  planes ; 
scratches  glass  ;  lustre  shining  and  resinous  ;  opake,  or  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges;  sp.  gr.  4.26  to  4.69. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone;  in  powder,  with  bo- 
rax gives  a  greenish  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  42;  silex  4;  oxide  of  zinc  28; 
oxide  of  iron  5;  sulphur  17. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  heavier  and  not  so  hard  as 
spinelle  ruby,  and  pleonaste  ;  garnet  is  fusible. 

Localities.     Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  in  a  talcose  rock. 

U.  S.     Franklin  Iron  Works,  N.  J.— Phillips. 
Species  56.     TOPAZ. 

External  characters.  Prevailing  colour,  wine  yellow,  of 
various  tints,  also  bluish,  greenish,  lilac,  and  white;  occurs 
crystallized,  in  rolled  pieces,  and  massive ;  form,  a  six,  eight, 
or  ten-sided  prism,  with  various  and  dissimilar  terminations  ; 
structure  lamellar ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  right 
rhombic  prism  ;  often  electric  by  heat;  fracture  small  con- 
choidal ;  lustre  vitreous ;  scratches  quartz ;  translucent,  or 
nearly  limpid:  sp.  or.  3.5. 
Fig.  123. 


Fig.  123.     An  eight-sided  prism,  terminated  by 
four  unequal  planes. 


What  minerals  does  it  resemble  ? — What  is  the  colour  of  topaz  ?— What 
are  the  forms  of  its  crystals  ? 


MINERALOGY.  175 

Fig.  124. 


Fig.  124.     The  same,  with  the  solid  angles  re- 
placed by  truncation. 


Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  after  long  heating  be- 
comes opake ;  with  borax  melts  into  a  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  (Yellow  Brazilian.)  Alumine  47.5;  silex 
44.5  :  fluoric  acid  7  ;  oxide  of  iron  0.5. — Klaproth. 

In  the  composition  of  this  species  there  is  a  considerable 
'•ariety. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  harder  than  citrine,  which  is 
infusible  with  borax.  The  greenish  Siberian  topaz  becomes 
electric  by  heat,  and  not  by  rubbing.  The  emerald  and  beryl 
are  not  electric  at  all.  From  coloured  glass,  which  is  often 
sold  for  real  topaz,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  a  fine  file, 
which  will  scratch  the  paste,  but  not  the  topaz. 

Topaz  belongs  to  primitive  rocks. 

Localities.  Siberia,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Brazil,  Savoy. 
Cornwall,  England,  and  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland. 

U.S.  Huntingdon,  Conn.  Colour,  honey  yellow;  struc- 
ture foliated.  One  crystal  from  this  locality  weighed  If  Ibs. 
arrl  a  fragment  of  another,  2  Ibs.  1  oz. — Hitchcock.  Also  at 
Trumbull,  Conn.  Goshen,  Mass.  This  locality  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hitchcock.  It  exactly  resembles 
the  limpid  topaz  of  Rio  Janeiro. 

The  largest  crystal  of  topaz,  probably  ever  in  Europe, 
weighs  7  ounces,  and  was  found  in  Aberdeenshire. — Jameson. 

The  topaz  was  known  to  Moses.  But  whether  it  was  the 
same  which  we  call  by  that  name  may  admit  of  doubts.  The 
ancient  topaz  was  of  a  green  colour.  Pliny  says  it  was  first 
found  by  king  Juba,  but  whether  he  means  the  same  stone 
with  that  mentioned  by  Moses,  is  also  uncertain. 

The  topaz  was  the  second  of  the  first  row  in  the  Jewish 
pontifical  breastplate,  with  the  name  of  Simeon  inscribed 
on  it. 

Uses.  The  yellow  variety  is  chiefly  employed  in  jewelry, 
and  when  of  an  equal  colour,  and  without  flaws,  it  is  consider- 
ably esteemed,  though  much  too  common  to  be  highly  valued 
by  the  lapidaries. 

*What  is  the  composition  of  topaz? — Where  has  topaz  been  found  in  this 
«ountry  ? — Was  topaz  known  to  the  ancients 


176  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  ancients  engraved  on  the  topaz,  of  which  a  few  exam- 
ples still  remain.  In  the  imperial  library  at  Paris,  there  is  a 
beautiful  intaglio  on  this  gem,  representing  an  Indian  Bacchus. 
The  cabinet  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  also  contains  several 
portraits  of  emperors  and  empresses,  on  the  same  stone. 

The  topaz  is  polished  on  a  copper  wheel,  with  tripoli  and 
spirits  of  wine. 

Variety  1.     PYROPIIYSALITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  white,  or  pale 
bluish  green  5  occurs  in, small  roundish  masses,  and  in  crys- 
tals :  translucent  or  opake ;  structure  lamellar  in  one  direction  ; 
fracture  uneven  or  conchoidal;  lustre  glimmering:  not  so 
hard  as  quartz:  sp.  gr.  3.4. 

Chemical  characters.  It  intumesces,  and  gives  out  a  green- 
ish phosphoric  light. — Phillips. 

Composition.  It  is  composed  of  nearly  the  same  ingre- 
dients as  topaz. 

Localities.     Fahlun  and  Finbo,  in  Sweden. 

U.  S.     Goshen,  Mass. 

Species  57.     PYCNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dull,  yellowish,  or  reddish 
white  ;  occurs  in  long  six-sided  prisms,  longitudinally  striated  ; 
crystals  closely  aggregated  laterally;  possesses  no  regular 
structure;  full  of  transverse  rents;  lustre  shining;  scratches 
quartz:  translucent;  brittle;  electric  by  heat:  sp.  gr.  3.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone  ;  with  borax  slowly 
dissolves  into  a  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  GO ;  silex  30  ;  lime  2  ;  fluoric  acid 
G;  water  1. —  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Altenberg,  in  Saxony.  Bavaria,  Bohemia, 
Norway,  Siberia,  &c, 

U.  S.  Chester,  Mass. 

Species  58.     CIIRYSOBERYL.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  with  a  yellowish  or 
brownish  tinge,  sometimes  reflects  a  whitish  light,  which  ap- 
pears to  come  from  the  interior  of  the  crystal ;  occurs  mas- 
sive, crystallized,  and  in  rolled  pieces;  form,  a  short,  broad, 
four  or  six-sided  prism,  or  table,  terminated  by  four  or  six- 
sided  summits ;  translucent,  or  nearly  transparent ;  structure 

*  A  superior  kind  of  beryl. 
What  is  said  of  pycnite  ?— What  is  the  colour  and  form  of  chrysoberyl  7 


MINERALOGY.  177 

foliated  ;  lustre  shining  ;  electric  by  friction  ;  scratches  topaz: 
sp.  gr.  3.8. 
Fig.  125. 


Fig.  125.     A  broad,  short,  four-sided  prism,  or 
table. 


Fig.  126. 


Fig.  126.  A  flat  six-sided  prism,  so  truncated  as  to 
appear  as  an  eight-sided  prism,  terminated  by  six- 
sided  pyramids. 


Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone :  with  borax,  in  small 
particles  melts  into  a  yellowish  green  transparent  glass,  which 
becomes  colourless  on  cooling. 

Composition.  Alumine  71.5;  silex  18;  lime  6;  oxide  of 
iron  1.5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  beryl  is  infusible  with  borax; 
the  emerald  \vith  borax  melts  into  a  colourless  glass.  Its 
great  hardness  being  next  to  that  of  sapphire,  will  distinguish 
it  from  most  minerals. 

Localities.  Ceylon  and  Brazil,  where  it  is  found  in  alluvial 
soiJs  with  the  topaz,  ruby,  and  sapphire. 

U.  S.  Haddam,  Conn,  where  it  occurs  chiefly  in  tabular 
crystals,  of  a  yellowish  green  colour,  imbedded  in  granite 
with  garnet,  beryl,  and  talc. 

Use.  It  is  sometimes  cut  and  polished  for  jewelry.  It 
takes  a  high  polish,  but  its  colour  is  seldom  of  that  rich  and 
pleasant  green  exhibited  by  the  emerald. 

Species  58.     SPINELLE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  red,  often  with  tints  of  vio- 
let, yellow,  or  crimson,  also,  dark  brown,  or  black ;  occurs  in 
round  and  angular  grains,  and  crystallized  in  octohedrons, 
variously  modified  ;  translucent,  transparent,  or  nearly  opake; 
structure  lamellar;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  vitreous; 
scratches  quartz :  sp.  gr.  3.7. 

How  is  chrysoberyl  known  fiom  beryl,  emerald,  and  other  minerals? — 
"Where  has  this  mineral  been  found  in  this  country  ? — What  is  the  colour 
and  what  the  crystalline  forms  of  spinelle  ? 


178  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Fig.  127. 

Fig.  127.     The  regular  octahedron. 
? 

Fig.  123. 

Fig.  128.     The  same,  with  edges  truncated. 


Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  retains  its  colour,  even 
when  melted  by  the  compound  blow  pipe. 

Composition.  Alurnine  84.47;  magnesia  8.78;  chromic 
acid  6. 18. —  Vauquelin. 

The  colour  is  probably  owing  to  the  chromic  acid. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  the  precious  garnet, 
but  the  garnet  is  fusible ;  it  also  resembles  some  varieties  of 
the  zircon,  but  these  lose  their  colour  by  heat.  The  red 
sapphire  is  harder,  and  of  a  more  lively  colour  than  spinelle.  It 
may  resemble  octohedral  iron,  but  this  is  magnetic. 

It  is  found  with  sapphire  and  zircon,  in  the  sand  of  rivers. 
Its  geological  situation  is  little  known. 

The  scarlet-coloured  is  termed  spinelle  rub]' ;  the  rose-red, 
the  balas  ruby;  the  orange-red,  rubicelle,  and  the  violet  co 
loured,  almandine  ruby. — Phillips. 

Localities.     Ceylon,  Mysore,  and  Pegu. 

U.  S.  Boxborpugh,  Mass. ;  colours,  bluish  gray,  and  dark 
green. — Robinson.  Warwick,  N.  Y.  At  this  locality,  Dr. 
Fowler,  of  Franklin,  has  discovered  red  and  black  spinelles, 
of  enormous  and  unprecedented  sizes.  The  red  is  of  various 
shades,  inclining  to  brown,  and  the  largest  crystals,  (octohe- 
drons,)  are  nearly  4  inches  in  circumference.  The  black 
crystals  are  still  larger ;  the  largest  measures  16  inches  around 
the  base,  and  many  others  give  a  base  of  4  and  8  inches. 

Both  kinds  are  imbedded  in  pink  carbonate  of  lime,  asso- 
ciated with  crystals  of  serpentine. — Silliman's  Journal.  Also 
at  Hamburgh,  N.  J.  where  it  is  found  in  calcareous  spar,  and 
quartz,  associated  witn  scapolite.  Munroe,  N.  Y.  of  a  deep 
black.  Bolton,  and  Littleton,  Mass,  imbedded  in  white  lime- 
stone, of  a  green,  or  blue  colour. 


What  is  the  composition  of  spinelle  ?— Does  it  occur  in  this  country? 


MINERALOGY .  179 

Variety  I.     PLEONASTE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  blue,  or  greenish  black  ; 
occurs  in  octohedral  crystals,  and  in  rounded  grains ;  struc- 
ture indistinctly  foliated:  cross  fracture  conchoidal;  scratches 
quartz;  feebly  translucent;  transmits,  in  thin  pieces,  a  dark, 
bluish,  or  greenish  light :  sp.  gr.  3.8. 

Chemical  characters.  Suffers  no  change  alone ;  with  borax 
melts  into  a  dark  green  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  72.25;  silex  5.48;  magnesia  14.63; 
oxide  of  iron  4.26. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.     It  is  not  so  hard  as  spinelle. 

Localities.  Ceylon,  in  alluvial  soils.  Vesuvius  and  Somma, 
in  the  cavities  of  volcanic  rocks. 

Species  59.     IOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  violet  blue,  or  purple,  some- 
times with  a  tinge  of  black ;  by  transmitted  light,  in  one  di- 
rection, brownish  yellow,  in  another,  indigo  blue;  occurs 
massive,  and  in  regular  six  and  twelve-sided  prisms;  clea- 
vage parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  six-sided  prism  ;  lustre,  shining, 
vitreous;  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal,  or  uneven;  trans- 
lucent or  opake  ;  structure  foliated  ;  scratches  glass,  and  some- 
times quartz :  sp.  gr.  2.56. 

Ckemical  characters.  Fusible  on  the  edges;  with  borax 
dissolves  slowly  into  a  diaphanous  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  42.6 ;  alumine34.4;  lime  1.7;  mag- 
nesia 5.8;  oxide  of  iron  1.5;  oxide  of  manganese  1.7. — 
Gmelin. 

Localities.  Cape  de  Gatte  and  Granada,  in  Spain,  in  a  blue 
clay.  Tunaberg,  in  Sweden,  with  pyritous  copper.  Green- 
Ian  1,  imbedded  in  quartz,  or  felspar.  Siberia  and  Ceylon,  in 
rolled  masses. 

Variety  1.     PELIOM.J 

External  characters.  Colour,  blue ;  occurs  in  six-sided 
crystals,  truncated  on  the  angles;  fracture  conchoidal;  re- 
sembles the  iolite  in  every  respect  except  in  colour. 

Locality.     Bodemnais,  in  Bavaria,  in  gray  granite. 

Variety  2.     STEINIIEILITE.^ 
External  characters.    Colour,  light  blue,  sometimes  with  a 

*  From  the  Greek,  a  violet  or  purple  stone. 
t  Signifying  blue  colour, 
t  After  Count  Stein heil. 

What  does  the  name  iolite  signify  ?— Where  is  iolite  found  1— What  art 
the  varieties  of  iolite  ? 


I 


ISO  INTRODUCTION  TO 

tjnge  of  red;    rarely  colourless ;    translucent;  occurs  amor- 
phous; lustre  shining;  fracture  cone hoidal:  sp.  gr.  2  69. 

Composition.  Silex  49.95  ;  alumine  32.28 ;  magnesia 
iO.45  ;  oxide  of  iron  5. —  Von  Bonsdorff. 

Locality.     Finbo,  in  Finland,  mixed  with  pyrites. 
Species  60.     LAZULITE.     AZULITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  fine  azure  blue;  occurs  iri 
crystals ;  form,  the  oblique  four-sided  prism,  and  the  six-sided 
prism  ;  also,  and  more  commonly,  in  grains  and  small  masses 
of  the  size  of  a  hazlenut;  structure  foliated ;-  translucent : 
scratches  glass  ;  lustre  vitreous  and  shining ;  brittle. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone  ;  with  borax  forms  a 
yellowish  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  66 ;  silex  10;  lime  2;  magnesia 
18;  oxide  of  iron  2.5. — Tromsdorf. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  lapis  lazuli,  and  the 
azure  carbonate  of  copper  But  the  lazulite  is  never  impreg- 
nated with  iron  pyrites,  and  the  lapis  rarely  occurs  in  crystals. 
The  carbonate  of  copper  is  heavier,  blackens  under  the  blow 
pipe,  and  tinges  borax  green. 

The  lazulite  does  not  afford  the  ultra-marine. 

Localities.     Stiria,  in  quartz,  and  Saltzburg,  in  clay  state. 

Species  61.     CHRYSOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  yellowish  green,  and 
brownish  green  ;  occurs  in  angular  rounded  crystalline  grains ; 
primary  form,  a  right  prism,  with  rectangular  bases:  secon- 
dary form,  eight,  ten,  or  twelve-sided  prisms,  with  truncated 
pyramidal  terminations  ;  the  number  of  terminal  faces  varies 
from  six  to  ten;  sometimes  the  termination  is  wedge-shaped, 
with  truncated  edges ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre,  splendent 
and  vitreous  ;  translucent  or  transparent ;  crystals  often  com- 
pressed with  the  broad  lateral  planes  striated  ;  scratches  glass : 
sp.  gr.  3.4. 
Fig.  129. 

Fig.  129.  A  ten-sided  prism,  with  two  broad 
faces,,  terminated  by  two  principal  planes,  cor- 
responding with  the  lateral  planes. 


What  is  the  colour  of  lazulite? — How  is  lazulite  distinguished  from  lapis 
lazuli,  and  azure  carbonate  of  copper?— What  is  the  prevailing  colour  of 
chrysolite? 


MINERALOGY.  181 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  turns  brown; 
fusible  with  borax  into  a  greenish  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Magnesia  50.5  ;  silex  33 ;  oxide  of  iron  9.5. 
—  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Hungary,  in  serpentine.  In  the  isle  of  Bour- 
bon, among  volcanic  products. 

The  chrysolite  of  commerce  comes  from  the  Levant. 

The  chrysolite  was  the  tenth  stone  in  the  Jewish  high-priest's 
pectoral,  bearing  the  name  of  Zebu-Ion. 

The  Hebrew  word  commonly  translated  chrysolite,  has  also 
been  rendered  carbuncle  and  beryl. — Calmet. 

Uses.  Chrysolite  is  sometimes  employed  in  jewelry,  but  is 
little  esteemed,  on  account  of  its  softness. 

Variety  1.     OLIVINE.* 

External  characters.  Colour, olive  green  5  occurs  in  masses 
of  various  sizes,  from  grains,  to  many  pounds  in  weight; 
translucent;  lustre  shining,  often  metallic  and  iridiscent  from 
decomposition  ;  fracture  small  conchoidal ;  structure  some- 
what foliated;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  about  3.24. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  brown,  but  does  not  melt; 
with  borax  fuses  slowly  into  a  yellowish  green  translucent 
glass.  Loses  its  colour  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Silex  50  ;  magnesia  38.5  ;  lime  0.25  ;  oxide 
of  iron  12. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  metallic  lustre,  foliated  struc- 
ture, and  deeper  coloured  glass,  when  melted  with  borax,  will 
distinguish  it  from  chrysolite,  and  its  localities  from  the  other 
minerals  which  it  resembles. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  in  basalt.  Isle  of  Bourbon,  in  lava, 
and  in  most  volcanic  products.  It  is  also  occasionally  found 
in  trap  and  greenstone  porphyry. 

Olivine  is  said  also  to  have  been  found  by  Professor  Pallas, 
in  the  meteoric  iron  of  Siberia. 

Species  62.     BRUCiTE.f — Gibbs. 

External  characters.  Colour,  wine  or  amber  yellow,  or 
yellowish  brown  ;  occurs  in  grains  and  crystalline  masses  ; 
also  in  four-sided  prisms,  with  rhombic  bases ;  lustre  a  little 
pearly ;  structure  not  apparent,  or  indistinctly  foliated  in  one 
direction  ;  crystals  generally  imperfect,  sometimes  terminated 

*  From  its  colour. 

t  In  honour  of  Professor  Bruce,  of  New-York. 

Was  chrysolite  known  to  the  ancients  ?— What  is  olivine  ?— Where  is  it 
found  ?— What  is  the  colour  of  brucite  1 — Whence  does  this  mineral  derive 
its  name  ? 

16 


182  INTRODUCTION  TO 

with  dihedral  summits ;  fracture  uneven ;  hardness  equal  to 
that  of  felspar;  translucent:  sp.  gr.  3.2. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  becomes  white  ; 
with  borax  fuses  slowly  into  a  transparent  globule,  tinged  with 
iron. 

Composition.  (From  Pargas.)  Magnesia  54;  silex  38; 
oxide  of  iron  5.1  ;  alumine  1.5;  potash  0.86;  manganese,  a 
trace. — D'  Ohsson. 

(That  of  Sparta.)  Magnesia  54.000  ;  silex  32.6C6;  fluoric 
acid  4.086;  potash  2.108;  peroxide  of  iron  2.333;  water 
1.000. — Seybert. 

Localities.     Sudermannland,  in  Sweden.  Pargas,  Finland. 

U.  S.  Sparta,  N.  J.,  in  foliated  limestone,  where  it  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  LangstafT.  Warwick,  Orange  County,  N.  Y. 
Sussex  County,  N.  J. 

Species  63.     HYDRATE  OF  MAGNESIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  often  tinged  with 
green;  occurs  in  plates,  or  thin  pieces;  structure  foliated; 
the  folia  often  radiating  from  a  centre;  lustre  shining  and 
pearly  ;  somewhat  elastic  ;  translucent,  in  thin  plates  trans- 
parent; soft;  yields  to  the  nail;  adheres  slightly  to  the 
tongue:  dissolves  entirely,  without  effervescence,  in  acids  :  sp. 
gr.  2.13. 

Composition.     Magnesia  70  ;  water  30. — Bruce. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  veins,  from  a  few 
lines,  to  two  inches  in  thickness,  in  serpentine.  Also  in  Unst, 
one  of  Shetland  Islands,  traversing  serpentine  in  all  direc- 
tions. 

Species  64.     SERPENTINE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  yellowish,  brownish, 
or  blackish  green ;  also,  reddish  and  grayish;  colours  often 
run  into  spots,  stripes,  or  veins;  occurs  massive,  and  very 
rarely  in  rhomhic  crystals;  fracture  splintery,  uneven,  or 
conchoidal  ;  translucent  or  opake;  receives  a  high  polish; 
unctuous  to  the  touch  ;  yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  2.5. 

Serpentine,  in  rhomboidal  crystals,  has  been  discovered  by 
Samuel  Fowler,  M.  D.  in  Warwick,  Orange  County,  N.  Y. 
It  occurs  in  crystalline  carbonate  of  lime,  with  spindle,  scapo- 
lite,  and  brucite. — Silliman's  Journal. 

*  From  its  resemblance  to  the  skin  of  a  serpent. 

Where  is  brucite  found  in  this  country  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  hy- 
drate of  magnesia  7 — What  are  the  colours  of  serpentine? — Does  it  ever 
occur  in  crystals  7  . 


MINERALOGY.  183 

Warwick  is  probably  one  of  the  richest  mineral  localities 
in  this,  or  any  other  country. 

Chtmical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  turns  white; 
with  borax  slowly  dissolves  with  bubbling-  into  a  transparent 
greenish  glass. 

Variety  \.     PRECIOUS  SERPENTINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  yellowish,  or  black- 
ish green,  or  brown,  often  clouded;  occurs  massive;  fracture 
conchoidal;  translucent;  fragments  sharp-edged  ;  lustre  glim- 
mering; unctuous  to  the  touch;  yields  to  the  knife;  texture 
compact:  sp.  gr.  2.2. 

Composition.  Silex  32  ;  magnesia  37.24  ;  alumine  0.5  ; 
lime  10.2;  oxide  of  iron  6;  water  14. — Heisinger. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  softer  and  more  easily  broken 
than  nephrite,  or  jade,  which  it  most  resembles. 

It  is  found  in  masses  and  beds  in  primitive  limestone,  gneiss, 
and  mica  slate. 

Localities.  Sweden,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Cornwall.  In  Italy 
it  is  intermixed  with  limestone,  forming  the  verd  antique. 

U.  S.  Mil  ford,  Conn.  It  is  imbedded  in  primitive  lime- 
stone, in  irregular  masses  commonly  enveloped  in  amianthus, 
and  containing  chromate  of  iron.  Its  colour  is  a  rich  green, 
and  it  receives  a  high  polish.  Near  Newburyport,  Mass. 
The  precious  serpentine  of  this  place  is  often  extremely  beau- 
tiful, and  perfectly  resembles  that  of  Kevans,  in  Cornwall. — 
Dewey.  Philipstown,  N.  Y.  associated  with  white  augite. — 
Barry.  Newport,  R.  I.  New  Fane,  Vt.  in  an  extensive 
formation.  Middlefield,  Mass.  Amity,  N.  Y. 
Variety  2.  COMMON  SERPENTINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  yellowish  green, 
blackish  green,  brown,  bluish  gray,  or  reddish;  colours  va- 
riously intermixed,  or  running  in  stripes  or  veins;  opake  or 
feebly  translucent  on  the  edges ;  occurs  massive;  fracture 
uneven  or  splintery ;  harder  than  precious  serpentine  ;  scarce- 
ly yielding  to  the  knife;  often  gives  out  the  odour  of  clay, 
when  breathed  on  :  sp.  gr.  2.5. 

Composition.  Magnesia  44;  silex44;  alumine  2;  oxide 
of  iron  7.3;  oxide  of  manganese  1.5;  oxide  of  chrome  2. — 
Vauquelin. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  mountains,  and  according  to  Wer- 
ner, in  more  recent  formations,  overlaying  the  older  primitive 
rocks. 

What  minerals  does  precious  serpentine  most  resemble  1 


184  INTRODUCTION  TO 

It  occurs  with,  and  commonly  embraces  the  precious  ser- 
pentine. 

Localities.  Portsoy,  in  Scotland.  Shetland  Isles,  He- 
brides, Cornwall,  &c. 

V.  S.  Bare  Hills,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  West  Chester,  and 
Montgomery  County,  Penn.  Hoboken,  and  Compton  Plains, 
N.  J.  Rye,  N.  Y.  Newport,  R.  I.  Grafton,  Vt. 

At  Mount  Rosa,  serpentine  is  found  at  an  elevation  of  from 
7  to  9,0t)0  feet. 

The  whole  front  of  the  Alps  which  looks  towards  Italy, 
everywhere  affords  serpentine. 

France  has  some  mountains  of  this  mineral,  particularly  in 
Limousin. 

The  finest  serpentine  is  said  to  occur  near  Granada,  in 
Spain,  superb  columns  of  which  decorate  the  churches  and 
palaces  of  Madrid. 

The  mountain,  called  Red  Horn,  near  Mount  Rosa,  is  ele- 
vated upwards  of  7,000  feet,  and  is  composed  of  compact  ser- 
pentine, divided  into  irregular  masses  of  immense  size. 

The  serpentine  of  Bareith,  is  spotted  with  garnets  of  the 
size  of  a  pea,  the  base  being  green.  Ornaments  are  made  of 
this,  presenting  fine  red  spots,  contrasted  with  a  deep  rich 
green  ground. 

Saussure  found  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  of  Geneva  a  va- 
riety of  serpentine  of  remarkable  specific  gravity,  it  being 
3.00.— See  Pinker  ion. 

Uses.  Jameson  says,  that  at  Zoblitz,  in  Upper  Saxony, 
several  hundred  persons  are  employed  in  quarrying,  cutting, 
turning,  and  polishing  the  serpentine,  which  occurs  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  that  the  various  articles  into  which  it  is 
manufactured,  are  carried  all  over  Germany. 

Species  65.     ZIRCON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  green,  yellowish,  red, 
bluish,  brown,  and  reddish ;  occurs  in  rounded  grains,  or  frag 
ments ;  also  crystallized,  in  the  form  of  four-sided  prisms,  ter- 
minated by  four-sided  pyramids,  and  in  dodecahedrons,  com- 
posed of  four  hexagonal  lateral  faces,  and  of  four  rhomboidal 
terminal  ones  at  each  extremity ;  cleavage  in  two  directions, 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  crystal ;  structure  indistinctly  folia- 
ted ;  harder  than  quartz ;  translucent  or  transparent ;  lustre 
resinous,  or  adamantine:  sp.  gr.  4.4. 

In  what  city  are  columns  of  serpentine  to  be  seen? — What  use  is  made 
of  this  mineral  in  Upper  Saxony?— What  are  the  colours  of  zircon  ? — What 
is  the  most  common  crystalline  form  of  zircon  ? 


MINERALOGY.  185 

Fig.  130. 


Fig.  130.  A  four-sided  prism,  terminated  by  four- 
sided  pyramids.     This  is  the  common  form. 


Chemical  characters.  It  is  infusible,  but  loses  its  colour 
with  borax  it  forms  a  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Zirconia  69;  silex  26.5;  oxide  of  iron  0.5. 
— Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  not  so  hard  as  chrysoberyl.  It 
is  more  transparent  than  staurotide.  Idocrase,  which  it  re- 
sembles, is  fusible  alone,  and  from  these  and  all  other  stones 
which  it  resembles,  it  may  be  known  from  its  greater  specific 
gravity,  hardness,  and  peculiar  oily  lustre  when  cut  and  po- 
lished. 

It  occurs  in  the  beds  of  rivers  and  alluvial  soils,  with  spi- 
nelle,  tourmaline,  &c.  also  imbedded. 

Localities.  Ceylon,  in  the  sand  of  rivers,  and  imbedded  in 
crystalline  slate.  Norway,  in  sienite.  Galloway,  in  Scotland, 
and  Auvergne,  in  France. 

U.  S.  Buncombe  County,  N.  C.,  in  four-sided  prisms,  ter- 
minated by  four-sided  pyramids.  On  the  Schuylkill,  14  miles 
from  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  in  small  light  brou-nish  crystals. — 
Jessup.  Near  Trenton,  N.  J.  Also  at  Franklin  Furnace. 
At  Schooley's  Mountain,  N.  J.  Sharon,  Conn.  Colour, 
dark  brown,  crystals  seldom  exceed  half  an  inch  in  length. — 
SilLiman.  Two  miles  from  Baltimore.  Md.  Philipstown, 
N.  Y.  East  Marl  borough,  Penn.,  in  beautiful  tetrahedral 
prisms:  colour,  brownish  red. — Carpenter  arid  Spackman. 
Also  at  Edenville,  Warwick,  and  Monroe,  N.  Y.  Easton, 
Penn.  Haddam,  Conn.,  in  small  crystals. 

Uses.  It  is  cut  and  set  as  a  precious  stone.  Jameson  says 
it  exhibits,  in  a  faint  degree,  the  play  of  colours  belonging  to 
the  diamond,  and  that  it  is  frequently  sold  as  an  inferior  kind 
of  diamond.  The  pale  variety  is  used  in  the  jewelling  of 
watches  instead  of  the  diamond. 

Variety  1.     HYACINTH. 

External  characters.  Colour,  various  shades  of  red,  as  yel- 
lowish or  brownish  red;  occurs  in  small  angular,  or  rolled 

In  what  countries  is  zircon  found  ? — What  are  the  localities  of  zircon  in 
this  country? — What  are  the  uses  of  zircon? — What  are  the  colours  of 
hyacinth  ? 

16* 


186  INTRODUCTION  TO 

grains  and  in  crystals ;  form,  the  four-sided  prism,  terminated 
by  four  planes,  which  are  set  on  the  lateral  edges  ;  crystals 
short,  small,  and  often  variously  terminated  ;  lustre  vitreous, 
inclining  to  resinous;  structure  foliated;  transparent  or  trans- 
lucent ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of 
the  primitive  octohedron  :  sp.  gr.  4  to  4.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  loses  its  colour,  but  retains 
its  transparency.  With  borax  fuses  into  a  colourless  glass. 

Composition,.  Zirconia  70  ;  silex  25  ;  oxide  of  iron  0.5. — 
K lap  roth. 

It  occurs  in,  primitive  rocks,  and  is  found  in  the  beds  of 
rivers. 

Localities.  Ceylon.  Near  Pisa,  in  Italy.  Auvergne,  in 
France,  in  volcanic  sand.  Lisbon,  Saxony,  and  in  Fifeshire, 
in  Scotland. 

The  oriental  hyacinth  is  an  orange-coloured  sapphire. 
The  occidental  hyacinth  is  a  topaz.  The  volcanic  hyacinth 
is  the  idocrase,  or  vcsuvian. 

The  hyacinth  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the  sacred  writers. 
St.  John  says  that  the  eleventh  foundation  of  the  heavenly 
city  is  a  hyacinth ;  and  in  Canticles,  gold  rings  set  with  hya- 
cinths, are  spoken  of.  Moses  often  speaks  of  the  hyacinth 
colour,  which  learned  interpreters  say  meant  violet  colour, 
or  azure-blue  tinged  with  red.  Hyacinth  colour  now  means 
yellowish  red,  so  that  it  is  at  present  uncertain  what  stone  the 
ancients  meant  by  the  hyacinth,  most  probably,  however,  it 
was  the  amethyst, 

Uses.  When  of  a  good  colour,  and  without  flaws,  it  is 
much  valued  in  jewelry.  It  is  said,  that,  after  destroying  the 
colour  by  heat,  it  is  sometimes  sold  for  the  diamond. 

Variety  2.     JARGOON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish,  bluish  gray,  and 
brownish  red,  always  faint  and  passing  into  Cd'ontless  ;  occurs 
in  small  four-sided  prisms,  and  in  grains;  lustre  splendent 
and  adamantine  ;  transparent  or  translucent :  sp.  gr.  4.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  limpid  by  heat,  but  is  in- 
fusible. 

Composition.  Zircon  66;  silex  31;  oxide  of  iron  2. — 
Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Ceylon,  in  the  sands  of  rivers.  Italy,  Spain, 
and  several  parts  of  India. 

What  do  the  scriptures  say  of  the  hyacinth  ?— What  is  the  use  of  hya- 
cinth?— What  is  its  composition? — What,  is  said  of  jargoon  1 


MINERALOGY.  187 

Uses.  It  is  employed  in  jewelry,  particularly  in  ornament- 
ing' watch  cases,  and  is  j^aid  to  be  frequently  sold  in  Paris  for 
the  real  diamond.  Indeed  after  the  colourless  variety  is  cut 
and  set,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  diamond,  it  is  con- 
sidered the  most  valuable  of  the  varieties  of  zircon. 
Species  66.  EUCLASE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  light  green  of  various  shades, 
greenish  white,  bluish  green,  or  sky-blue :  occurs  in  crystals, 
in  the  form  of  oblique-angled  four-sided  prisms,  variously  mod- 
ified and  terminated;  structure  laminated ;  cleavage  parallel 
to  the  sides  of  the  prism;  lustre  strongly  vitreous ;  cross  frac- 
ture conchoidal ;  scratches  quartz;  very  brittle ;  translucent 
or  transparent:  sp.  gr.  2.91  to  3.32.  Crystals  longitudinally 
striated. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  white  enamel. 

Composition.  Glucine  21.78 ;  silex43.32;  alumine  30.54; 
iron  2.22;  oxide  of  tin  0.70. — Berzclius. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  fusibility  and  brittleness  will 
distinguish  it  from  the  greenish  varieties  of  zircon;  idocrase 
melts  into  a  yellowish  glass.  The  different  forms  of  its  crys- 
tals will  distinguish  it  from  emerald  and  beryl. 

Localities.  Peru  and  Brazil.  Its  localities  and  associa- 
tions are  unknown. 

Jameson  observes,  that  it  is  a  beautiful  fossil,  but  cannot  be 
employed  in  jewelry  on  account  of  its  briltleness. 

Phillips  has  given  the  figure  of  a  crystal  of  euclase,  which 
exhibits  78  longitudinal  faces.  The  faces  are  so  narrow  as 
to  make  it  appear  striated. 

Species  67.     BERYL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  yellowish  green,  blu- 
ish green,  or  greenish  white,  always  pale:  occurs  in  six-sided 
crystals,  terminated  by  six  sided  pyramids;  crystals  often 
taper  gradually  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  are  of  all  sizes, 
from  a  line  to  a  foot  in  diameter ;  lateral  faces  striated,  often 
so  deeply  as  to  render  the  angles  indistinct;  large  crystals 
frequently  contain  other  substances,  or  are  hollow  in  the  line 
of  the  axis;  transparent  or  translucent;  lustre,  vitreous; 
scratches  quartz;  fracture  uneven  or  conchoidal:  sp.  gr.  2.67. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  white  and  turbid. 
With  borax,  it  fuses  into  a  nearly  transparent  glass 

Composition.     Silex  68  ;  alumine  15  ;  glucine  14  :  lime  2: 
oxide  of  iron  1. —  Vauquclin. 
*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  easily  broken,  in  allusion  to  its  brittlenp?3» 

What  is  the  prevailing  colour  of  euclase? — What  is  the  composition  of 
euclase?— What  is  the  colour  of  beryl  ? 


139  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  emerald  in  being 
of  a  paler  green;  apatite  is  much  softer,  and  dissolves  in  nitric 
acid,  it  also  phosphoresces  on  hot  coals.  The  greenish  variety 
of  tourmaline  resembles  the  beryl,  but  is  softer,  electric  by 
heat,  and  fusible  alone. 

Beryl  belongs  to  primitive  rocks,  and  particularly  to  that 
variety  of  granite  called  graphic.  It  is  associated  with  gar- 
nets, quartz,  chrysoberyl,  schorl,  topaz,  &c. 

Localities.  Siberia,  Persia,  on  the  confines  of  China.  Li- 
moges, in  France,  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland.  Peru,  Brazil,  Sax- 
ony, and  Elba. 

U.  S.  Haddam,  Brooklyn,  Litchfield,  Chatham,  and  Middle 
Haddam,  Conn.  Crystals  7  or  8  inches  long  have  been  found 
at  Haddam.  One  in  the  cabinet  of  Yale  College  is  7  inches 
long,  and  nine  in  the  diagonal  diameter. — Silliman.  German- 
town,  Chestnut  Hill,  East  Marlborough,  and  in  Chester  Coun- 
ty, Penn.  Chesterfield,  Goshen,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston 
and  Northampton,  Mass.  At  Goshen,  two  rose-coloured  eme- 
ralds have  been  found,  one  of  which  is  an  inch  and  a  halflonjj. 
— Gibbs.  In  the  state  of  Maine,  it  is  found  more  or  less  con- 
stantly to  an  extent  of  30  miles  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and 
Cumberland,  also  at  TopsharnandBowdoinham. — Cleveland. 
Cumberland,  R.  I. 

Uses.  Beryl  is  occasionally  employed  in  jewelry,  but  its 
pale  colour  and  numerous  fissures  commonly  render  it  unfit 
for  this  purpose.  The  greenish  variety  is  set  with  a  steel- 
coloured,  or  greenish  blue  foil.  The  pale  or  nearly  limpid 
variety  is  set  on  a  black  ground  like  the  diamond,  or  on  a.  sil- 
ver foil. 

The  beryl  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  eighth  stone  in 
the  high-priest's  pectoral,  or  according  to  Calmet  the  twelfth, 
with  the  name  of  Naplhali,  engraved  on  it.  According  to 
some  learned  writers,  our  beryl  is  the  same  with  that  meant 
in  Scripture. 

The  only  remarkable  differences  between  the  emerald  and 
beryl  are  in  their  colours,  which,  however,  produces,  such  an 
uninterrupted  series,  that  only  arbitrary  limits  can  be  fixed 
within  it.  The  colour  of  emerald,  is  emerald  green  5  all  the 
varieties  of  other  colours  are  beryl. — Mohs. 

Species  68.     EMERALD. 

External  characters.     Colours,  lively  emerald  green,  or 
bluish  green,  always  rich  and  beautiful ;  occurs  in  long  six- 
How  does  beryl  differ  from  emerald?— Is  beryl  a  common  or  rare  mine- 
ral?— Is  our  beryl  the  same  as  that  mentioned  in  Scripture? 


MINERALOGY. 


189 


sided  prisms,  generally  perfect,  and  variously  terminated ; 
structure  imperfectly  foliated  ;  not  so  large  as  beryl;  scratch- 
es quartz  ;  lustre  vitreous  and  shining;  becomes  electric  by 
friction;  crystals  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  inches  long; 
transparent  or  translucent:  sp.  gr.  from  2.60  to  2.77. 
Fig.  131. 


Fig.  131.     A  six-sided  prism,  acuminated  by 
ix  planes  corresoondinp;  with  the  lateral  planes. 


Fig.  132. 


Fig.  133. 


Fig.  132.     A  six-sided  prism,  with  truncated 
lateral  planes. 


Fig.  133.  A  six-sided  prism,  terminated  by  a 
six-sided  pyramid,  the  planes  of  which  are  set  on 
the  angles  of  the  prism,  with  the  angles  of  the 
summit  truncated. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  a  porous 
glass.  With  borax  slowly  dissolves  into  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  64.5 :  oflucine  13;  alumine  16;  lime 
1.6;  oxide  of  chrome  3.25. —  Vauqucliu. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  known  from  beryl  by  its  deep- 
er and  richer  green,  and  from  green  tourmaline  by  the  same 
quality.  From  apatite  by  its  greater  hardness  and  insolubility 
in  acids,  and  from  chrysoberyl,  by  being  less  hard,  more  trans- 
parent, and  of  a  brighter  green. 

The  emerald  has  been  found  chiefly  in  secondary  coun- 
tries, but  it  is  supposed  that  its  proper  situation  is  in  primitive 
rocks. 

Localities.  The  finest  emeralds  formerly  came  from  Manta, 
in  Peru,  but  it  is  said  that  this  mine  is  exhausted,  and  that  the 
best  are  now  found  in  the  valley  of  Tunca,  in  Santa  Fe,  where 
they  occur  in  granite. 


What  is  said  of  the  green  colour  of  the  emerald  1    What  are  the  crystal 
line  forms  of  the  emerald? — Whence  do  the  finest  emeralds  come? 


190  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  emerald  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  tho 
third  stone,  according  to  Calmet's  arrangement,  on  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  of  judgment,  with  the  name  of  Zebulon 
inscribed  on  it. 

In  the  time  of  Pl'ny,  this  stone  was  held  in  so  high  estima- 
tion, that  it  was  seldom  or  never  engraved  upon,  which  pro- 
bably is  the  reason,  that  scarcely  any  well  authenticated  an- 
tique engravings  exist  on  this  gem.  The  moderns  have,  how- 
ever, engraved  upon  it,  as  there  exists,  in  the  royal  collection 
at  Paris,  a  head  of  Henry  IV.  and  another  of  Lewis  XIV.  on 
the  emerald. 

An  emerald  is  said  to  have  existed  at  the  Chapel  of  our  Lady, 
at  Loretto,  in  Italy,  larger  than  a  man's  head,  and  for  which 
an  English  gentleman  offered  90,000  crowns. 

Keysler,  in  his  travels,  has  given  the  outline  of  an  emerald, 
which  he  sa\v  at  the  monastery  of  Reichenau,  in  Switzerland, 
arid  which  was  presented  by  Charles  the  Fat.  This  emerald, 
says  he,  weighs  28lbs.  3qrs.,  and  could  be  sold  for  6,550/. 
sterling  per  pound. 

Later  authors,  however,  say  that  this  is  green  fluor,  or  green 
glass.  , 

Probably  the  largest  real  emerald  ever  found,  was  that  pos- 
sessed by  the  inhabitants  of  the  valley  of  Manta,  in  Peru, 
which  according  to  De  la  Vega,  was  about  the  size  of  an  os- 
trich's egg.  When  the  Spaniards  arrived  there,  it  was  wor- 
shipped, as  the  goddess,  or  mother  of  emeralds,  and  smaller 
ones  were  brought  to  it  as  offerings. 

But  perhaps  the  most  magnificent  specimen  of  genuine  eme- 
ralds in  the  world,  was  presented  to  the  cathedral  of  Loretto, 
by  one  cf  the  Spanish  kings.  It  consists  of  a  mass  of  white 
quartz,  thickly  implanted  with  emeralds  more  than  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

According  to  Mohs,  the  locality  where  the  ancients  procured 
their  emeralds,  had  been  lost  until  within  a  few  years,  but  has 
been  re-discovered  in  Mount  Zalara,  Upper  Egypt,  in  granite 
and  mica-slate. 

Uses.  Emeralds  are  cut  and  polished  for  the  most  expen- 
sive kind  of  jewelry.  Those  of  the  first  quality  require  no 
foil,  but  are  set  on  a  black  ground  like  the  diamond ;  inferior 
ones  are  set  with  a  green  gold  foil,  or  on  green  satin. 

Species  69.     GADOLINITE.* 
"External  characters.  Colours,  greenish,  or  brownish  black ; 

*  After  Gadolin,  who  first  found  it. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  emerald?— Is  the  emerald  a  valuable  eeraV 


MINERALOGY.  191 

occurs  massive,  and  rarely  in  crystals  which  are  ten-sided 
prisms;  lustre  splendent,  or  shining  resinous;  slightly  trans- 
lucent; scratches  glass;  fracture  cone hoidal :  sp.  gr.  4.20. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  it  intumesces 
and  throws  out  cauliflower-like  ramifications. — Phillips. 

Mohs  says  it  decrepitates,  but  does  not  melt  except  in  small 
splinters. 

Cleveland  says  that  it  becomes  red,  as  if  burning.  In  ni- 
tric acid  it  loses  its  colour,  and  is  converted  into  a  jelly. 

Composition.  Ittria  54.75;  silex  21.25  ;  glucine  5.5;  alu- 
mine  0.5  ;  oxide  of  iron  17.5  ;  water  5  ;  magnesia,  a  trace. — 
Klaproth. 

Localities.     Sweden,  in  several  places. 

The  new  earth  iltria,  was  first  discovered  in  this  mineral 
by  Dr.  Gadolin. 

U.  S.     Bolton,  "Mass.— Webster. 


CLASS  III. 

ACIDIFEROUS    ALKALINE  MINERALS. 

This  class  includes  such  minerals  as  consist  chiefly  of  an 
alkali,  united  with  an  acid.  Some  of  the  species  contain  for- 
eign matter,  rendering  them  very  impure.  This  division  in- 
cludes but  a  few  articles. 

GENUS  i. — POTASH. 

This  genus  contains  only  one  species. 

Species  1.     NITRATE  OF  POTASH.     NITRE. 

The  well  known  srtlt,  nitre,  or  saltpetre,  often  occurs  native, 
in  greater  or  less  quantities.  It  is  found  in  capillary  crystals, 
and  crusts  of  a  saline  cooling  taste;  transparent  or  translu- 
cent ;  deflagrates  when  thrown  on  burning  charcoal,  and  dis- 
solves m  water. 

It  is  particularly  found  on  old  walls,  and  in  the  earth,  and 
decayed  substances  of  ancient  buildings.  It  is  also  found  in 
some  calcareous  countries,  and  in  ancient  situations,  once  in- 
habited, but  now  lying  waste. 

Localities.  Several  plains  in  Spain  ;  on  the  chalk  forma- 
tions in  some  parts  of  France,  in  the  grottoes  of  Mount  Ham- 
berg,  in  Germany.  In  Hungary,  Arabia,  Italy,  Persia,  and 
other  countries. 


What  is  the  composition  of  gadolinite? — What  are  the  minerals  of  the 
third  class  chiefly  composed  of? 


192  INTRODUCTION 

Ln  many  of  these  countries,  nitre  is  extracted  from  the  earth 
in  particular  places  by  lixiviation,  and  after  being  purified  and 
crystallized  is  fitted  for  commerce. 

U.  S.  Rackoon  Mountain,  Geo.  Abundant  in  a  cavern, 
the  earth  of  which  contains  from  3  to  10  Ibs.  of  salts  to  the 
bushel.  It  is  partly  nitrate  of  lime,  which  is  decomposed  by 
wood  ashes. — Cornelius.  Madison  County,  Ken.  in  a  cave 
646  yards  long,  and  about  40  feet  broad.  The  earth  contains 
both  nitrate  of  potash,  and  nitrate  of  lime.  It  is  lixiviated, 
and  the  nitrate  of  lime  decomposed  by  wood  ashes.  Ken- 
tucky furnishes  large  quantities  of  nitre,  from  this  and  other 
localities. —  Cleveland.  In  some  parts  of  the  state  of  Ken- 
tucky, it  is  said  that  masses  of  native  nitre  are  found  weighing 
several  pounds. 

Nitre  is  also  obtained  from  earth  found  in  sheltered  places, 
in  several  parts  of  Ohio. — Atwater. 

Uses.  Its  principal  employment  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
gun-powder,  and  the  nitric  acid.  It  is  also  used  in  the  curing 
of  meat;  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  oxygen  for  chemical 
experiments,  for  medicinal  purposes,  for  fluxes,  &c. 

Potash  is  essentially  composed  of  the  metal  potassium  and 
oxygen. 

GENUS  ii. — SODA. 

Soda  is  found  combined  with  carbonic,  sulphuric,  nitric, 
boracic,  and  muriatic  acids,  forming  sulphate,  carbonate,  ni- 
trate, borate,  and  muriate  of  soda. 

SpecLl  1.       CARBONATE  OF  SODA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  yellowish  white  , 
occurs  crystallized,  massive,  fibrous,  incrusting,  and  efflores- 
cent; the  massive  is  compact  or  granular:  the  fibrous,  often 
radiated;  lustre  glistening;  translucent;  taste,  urinous  and 
saline. 

Chemical  characters.  It  effervesces  with  acids,  and  when 
dissolved  in  muriatic  acid,  forms  common  salt;  in  sulphuric 
acid,  forms  glauber's  salt. 

Composition.  (When  pure.)  Soda  22  ;  carbonic  acid  15; 
water  62. 

Soda  is  composed  of  the  metal  sodium  and  oxygen. 

What  is  the  composition  of  nitrate  of  potash  ?— What  are  the  uses  of 
nitrate  of  potash  ?— What  are  the  substances  with  which  soda  is  found  na- 
turally combined  1 — What  is  the  composition  of  common  salt  ?— What  is 
the  composition  of  pure  soda? 


MINERALOGY.  193 

•  •' 

It  is  always  impure  in  the  natural  state,  being  mixed  with 
various  portions  of  muriate  and  sulphate  of  soda,  or  muriaio 
of  lime. 

This  salt  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world  in  crusts,  on 
certain  decomposing  rocks,  in  lakes,  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  or  in  the  waters  of  certain  springs. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  dissolved  in  the  hot  springs  of  Carls- 
bad. Egypt,  in  the  Natron  Lakes.  These  are  six  in  number, 
situated  in  a  barren  valley  westward  of  the  Delta.  The  edges 
of  these  lakes,  in  the  hot  and  dry  season,  are  surrounded  by  a 
band  of  white  salt,  several  yards  in  breadth.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  natron,  but  is  mixed  with  common  salt.  Hungary  contains 
several  lakes,  which  in  winter  are  full  of  water,  but  in  summer, 
when  the  water  evaporates,  saline  efflorescences  appear,  con- 
sisting of  natron,  with  a  little  glauber's  salt,  and  epsom  salt. 
One  crop  being  gathered,  another  appears  in  a  few  days,  and 
this  harvest  continues  until  fall.  Africa,  between  Tripoli  and 
Fezzan,  contains  large  quantities  of  the  radiated  variety, 
called  trona.  It  lies  in  a  thin  stratum,  in  a  bed  of  common 
salt.  From  this  place,  it  is  said,  hundreds  of  tons  are  annually 
collected. 

Uses.  It  is  principally  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap  and  glass.  It  is  also  used  in  the  Levant  to  give  a  sharper 
taste  to  smoking  tobacco,  by  mixing  a  little  with  it.  The  an- 
cient Egyptians  are  said  to  have  made  use  of  natron,  in  pre- 
paring the  bodies  of  their  dead  for  mummies. 

Species  2.     SULPHATE  OF  SODA.     GLAUBER'S  SALT. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  yellowish  white  ; 
occurs  in  efflorescences,  and  in  an  earthy  form,  but  is  more 
commonly  dissolved  in  certain  mineral  waters.  When  water 
containing  it,  is  evaporated,  it  yields  prismatic  crystals  with 
dihedral  summits;  when  exposed  to  the  air,  they  soon  efflo- 
resce, or  lose  their  water  of  crystallization,  and  fall  into  a 
white  powder.  It  rarely,  if  ever,  is  found  in  native  crystals ; 
taste  saline  and  nauseously  bitter. 

Composition.  (When  pure.)  Soda  15  ;  sulphuric  acid  27; 
water  58. 

It  is  found  in  many  mineral  waters,  generally  with  other 
salts,  as  epsom  and  common  salt,  and,  perhaps,  is  the  result  of 
the  mutual  decomposition  of  these  two  salts. 

Localities.  It  is  found  in  the  lakes  of  Austria,  Lower  Hun- 
gary, Siberia,  and  Russia.  Near  Madrid,  it  is  said  to  occur 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  carbonate  of  soda? — What  is  the  composition 
of  dauber's  salt? 

17 


194  INTRODUCTION  TO 

in  efflorescences  at  the  bottom  of  a  ravine.     Indeed,  small 
quantities  of  it  are  found  in  most  countries. 

The  glauber's  salt,  generally  used  in  medicine,  is  prepared 
from  bittern,  the  liquor  which  remains  after  the  extraction  of 
common  salt  from  sea-water. 

Species  3.     NITRATE  OF  SODA. 

This  salt  is  described  by  Mariano  de  Rivero,  in  the  Ann. 
des  Mines,  for  1821,  p.  596,  as  occurring  in  immense  quantities 
in  the  district  of  Tarapaca,  in  Peru,  near  the  frontiers  of  Chili, 
and  three  days'  journey  from  La  Conception.  It  there  forms 
a  bed  several  feet  thick,  which  in  many  places  appears  on  the 
surface,  and  occupies  an  extent  of  more  than  forty  leagues. 
The  salt  appears  occasionally  as  an  efflorescence,  sometimes 
crystallized,  but  more  often  mixed  with  clay  or  sand  ;  to  the 
taste  it  is  cool  and  bitter ;  it  is  deliquescent,  and  when  exposed 
to  heat,  it  behaves  like  nitrate  of  potash ;  it  contains  a  little 
sulphate  of  soda.  Very  large  quantities  of  this  salt,  purified 
by  solution  and  crystallization,  have  already  been  imported 
into  Europe.— Phillips. 

Species  4.     BORATE  OF  SODA.     BORAX. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  sometimes  with  a  tinge 
of  blue  or  green  ;  occurs  in  prismatic  crystals,  variously  ter 
minated,  and  yielding  to  cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the. 
primitive  form,  which  is  an  oblique  rhombic  prism :  translu- 
cent, or  transparent ;  sometimes  opake. 

Chemical  characters.  Intumesces  largely,  gives  somewhat 
of  a  crackling  noise,  and  fuses  into  a  transparent  globule, 
which  is  unalterable  by  the  heat  of  the  blow  pipe. 

Composition.  Soda  17;  boracic  acid  36 ;  water  47. — Bcr- 
zelius. 

This  salt  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  to  be  the  substance  called  crysocolla,  by  Pliny.  It  is 
brought  from  the  East  Indies,  in  an  impure  state,  and  in  com- 
merce is  denominated  tincal.  After  being  purified,  which  is 
done  by  the  Dutch  and  British,  it  is  called  borax. —  Thompson. 

Tincal  is  brought  chiefly,  if  not  only,  from  Thibet,  where 
it  is  procured  from  a  lake  which  is  entirely  supplied  by  springs. 
The  edges  and  shallows  of  the  lake  are  covered  with  a  stra 
turn  of  borax,  which  is  dug  up  in  considerable  masses,  and  the 
holes  thus  made,  are  gradually  filled  by  a  fresh  deposition. — 
Phillips. 

How  is  the  glauber's  salt  uged  in  medicine  obtained  ? — What  is  the  com- 
position of  borax  ?— Whence  does  borax  come,  and  what  is  the  mode  ol 
obtaining  it  ? 


MINERALOGY.  195 

It  is  said  also  to  be  met  with  in  Ceylon,  and  in  considerable 
quantity  in  Potosi. — Moks. 

Uses.  Borax  is  made  use  of  as  a  flux,  and  is  especially 
useful  in  testing  mineralogical  specimens,  and  particularly 
ores.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  artificial  gems,  and  is 
used  in  soldering,  and  in  medicine. 

The  purification  of  tincal  is  an  art  confined  to  a  few  chem- 
ists, and  the  process  is  kept  a  secret. 

Species  5.     MURIATE  OF  SODA.     COMMON  SALT. 

Pure  rock  salt  is  so  universally  known,  as  to  require  no  de- 
scription. Its  primitive  form  is  a  cube,  and  into  this  it  may 
veadily  be  cleaved;  structure  lamellar ;  translucent  or  trans- 
pa  rent. 

Chemical  characters.  It  decrepitates  violently,  but,  between 
two  pieces  of  charcoal,  may  be  fused;  when  it  tinges  the 
flame  yellow,  diffuses  itself  over  the  surface  of  the  charcoal, 
and  sinks  into  its  substance.  Heat  does  not  increase  its  solu- 
bility in  water. 

Composition.  Soda  53.44;  muriatic  acid  46.55. — Berze- 
lius. 

In  its  impure  state,  as  it  is  commonly  raised  from  the  mine, 
rock  salt  is  in  large  and  solid  masses,  of  a  crystalline  structure, 
and  of  a  reddish  or  bluish  colour;  translucent,  presenting  im- 
purities to  the  eye,  in  spots,  or  veins. 

It  is  almost  always  associated  with  gypsum,  which  either 
lies  above,  or  below  it,  or  both,  or  is  intermixed  with  it. 
Sometimes  the  gypsum  ie  so  impregnated  with  the  salt,  as  to 
be  worth  working  on  that  account. 

Common  salt  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  productions  of 
nature.  Besides  the  immense  beds  of  it  which  are  known  to 
exist  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  together  with  inland 
springs,  which  contain  it  in  large  quantities,  the  ocean  contains 
about  a  thirtieth  part,  by  weight,  of  common  salt,  and  may  be 
considered  its  greatest  repository. 

Localities.  Spain  contains  vast  quantities  of  rock  salt. 
In  Spanish  Navarre,  between  Caparosa,  and  the  river  Ebro, 
is  a  hill  of  considerable  elevation,  and  about  four  hundred  pa- 
ces long,  by  eighty  wide,  composed  of  rock  salt,  with  interpo- 
sing layers  of  gypsum. — Bowles. 

But  a  much  more  remarkable  deposite  of  the  same  kind  ex- 
ists at  Cordova,  sixteen  miles  from  Barcelona,  in  Spain.  '  This 

What  are  the  uses  of  borax  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  common  salt? 
What  is  the  mineral  with  which  common  salt  is  chiefly  associated? — What 
is  said  of  the  quantities  in  which  common  salt  exists? 

S* 


196  INTRODUCTION  TO 

is  a  mountain  of  massive  rock  salt,  about  four  or  five  hundred 
feet  high,  and  a  league  in  circumference.  It  is  without 
chasms,  crevices,  or  layers.  The  colour  of  this  salt  is  white, 
sometimes  red  or  blue. — Bowles. 

Ulloa  mentions  the  vast  deposites  of  rock  salt  which  exist 
in  Peru,  and  says  the  mountains  of  salt  are  equally  as  high  as 
those  which  yield  silex  and  mercury.  These  mines  of  salt 
form  a  part  of  the  grand  chain  of  the  Andes,  and  are  situated 
ten  or  twelve  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  Siberia,  there  is  said  to  be  a  mountain  of  rock  salt,  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  high,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  in  length. — Pinkerton. 

Poland  and  Hungary  afford  immense  quantities  of  common 
salt.  The  celebrated  mines  near  Cracow,  have  been  wrought 
since  1251.  One  of  the  shafts  of  this  mine  is  more  than  a 
thousand  feet  deep. 

In  descending  to  the  bottom,  says  Shaw,  the  visiter  with 
surprise  finds  a  subterraneous  commonwealth  of  families, 
who  have  their  peculiar  laws  and  polity.  They  have  public 
roads,  horses,  and  carriages.  These  horses,  when  once  im- 
mured in  this  destination,  never  more  see  the  light  of  day, 
and  many  of  the  people  are  buried  alive  in  this  abyss,  having 
been  born  there,  without  ever  having  made  a  journey  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  This  subterraneous  community  have 
several  chapels  hewn  out  of  the  rock  salt,  and  many  crucifixes 
and  images  of  saints,  before  which  lights  are  constantly  burn- 
ing. 

Germany,  Italy,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  almost  every 
other  country,  possess  either  mines  of  salt,  or  springs  from 
which  it  is  produced  by  evaporation. 

England  yearly  exports  great  quantities  of  salt.  From  the 
springs  in  Worcestershire,  16,000  tons  are  annually  produced ; 
and  156,000  tons  of  rock  salt  are  annually  raised  from  the 
great  deposite,  near  Norwich,  in  Cheshire. 

U.  S.  The  United  States  are  well  supplied  with  the  means 
of  manufacturing  this  indispensable  article.  Salt  springs  are 
numerous,  and  most  of  them  situated  far  inland,  thus  prevent- 
ing the  necessity,  in  many  instances,  of  transporting  so  heavy 
an  article  to  any  great  distance  by  land. 

Salt  springs  exist  in  Arkansas,  Missouri,  in  several  places 


In  what  countries  are  the  most  remarkable  deposites  of  common  salt? — 
What  is  said  of  the  salt  mines  of  Cracow  ?— Where  are  the  salt  springs  of 
the  United  States'? 


MINERALOGY.  197 

at  the  head  waters  of  the  Ohio,  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Illi- 
nois, New  York,  &c. 

Near  Shawneetown,  Illinois,  is  a  spring  which  yields  annu- 
ally 150,000  bushels  of  salt.  It  sells  at  70  cents  per  bushel. 
— Schoolcraft. 

Near  the  Muskingum,  in  Ohio,  is  a  salt  spring,  which  fur- 
.  nishes  80  bushels  of  salt  daily. — Alwater. 

The  stateof  New  York  furnishes  more  than  500,000  bushels 
of  salt  yearly. — Gibbs. 

The  whole  quantity  of  salt  annually  extracted  from  saline 
springs  in  the  United  States,  was  several  years  ago  estimated 
at  one  million  of  bushels. — Cleveland. 

GENUS  in. — AMMONIA. 

Ammonia,  or  volatile  alkali,  when  pure,  exists  only  in  a 
gaseous  form.  It  is  composed  of  about  98.24  nitrogen,  and 
L76  hydrogen.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  from  his  experiments, 
was  led  to  suppose  that  its  base  was  a  metal,  but  this  requires 
further  proof. 

It  is  found  combined  with  the  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids, 
forming  sulphate,  and  muriate  of  ammonia. 

Species  1.     SULPHATE  OF  AMMONIA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish,  or  yellowish  ;  occurs 
in  stalactites  and  crusts  ;  externally,  it  is  usually  covered  with 
a  whitish  dust ;  taste  acrid  and  bitter.  ^ 

Composition.  Ammonia  40  ;  sulphuric  acid  42  ;  water  18. 
— Phillips. 

Localities.  Sienna,  in  Tuscany,  surrounding  certain  small 
lakes;  also  in  the  lavas  of  Etna  and  Vesuvius. 

Species  2.     MURIATE  OF  AMMONIA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  white,  yel- 
low, green,  and  brownish  black  ;  occurs  massive,  with  a  fibrous 
structure,  plumose,  in  crusts,  and  in  angular  crystals,  of  which 
the  cube  is  the  primary  form  ;  taste  pungent  and  saline ;  ex- 
ternally dull ;  internally,  shining  and  vitreous. 

Composition.  (That  of  Vesuvius.)  Muriate  of  ammonia 
99.5;  muriate  of  soda  0.5. — Klaproth. 

The  crystals  are  small,  and  intersect  each  other. 

Jameson,  from  Estner,  enumerates  the  following  forms,  be- 
sides the  cube,  under  which  it  appears.  Complete  rhomboid. 
Rectangular  four-sided  prism,  acuminated  by  four  planes. 
Garnet  dodecahedron,  sometimes  truncated  on  all  the  edges. 

•     In  what  form  does  pure  ammonia  exist  ? — With  what  acids  is  ammonia 
found  combined  ? 

17* 


199  INTRODUCTION  TO 

When  rubbed  with  quicklime,  it  emits  the  odour  of  am- 
monia. 

It  is  the  product  of  volcanoes,  or  of  art. 

Localities.  Etna,  Solfatera,  Vesuvius,  Lipari,  Hecla,  and 
other  volcanic  countries. 

The  sal  ammoniac  of  commerce  was  formerly  brought  from 
Egypt,  but  is  now  prepared  in  large  quantities  in  several  parts 
of  Europe,  and  particularly  at  Paris.  Different  processes  are 
employed  in  its  manufacture.  At  Paris,  two  separate  kilns 
are  constructed,  into  one  of  which  are  put  a  mixture  of  com- 
mon salt  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  into  the  other  animal  matters, 
as  parings  of  hides,  horns,  hoofs,  &c.  On  the  application  of 
heat,  muriatic  acid  gas  is  extricated  from  one  kiln,  and  a/n- 
monia  from  the  other.  These  two  gases  are  conveyed  in 
pipes  to  a  chamber  lined  with  lead,  where  they  combine  and 
form  muriate  of  ammonia.  In  England,  a  process  some  what 
different  is  employed. 

CLASS  IV. 
ACIDIFEROUS  ALKALINO-EARTHY  MINERALS. 

The  minerals  arranged  under  this  class,  contain  an  alkali 
and  an  earth,  acidified  by  the  sulphuric,  or  fluoric  acids,  form- 
ing salts  of  different  characters.  The  species  are  few  in  num- 
ber, and^some  of  them  but  little  known. 

Species  \.     SULPHATE  OF  ALUMINE  AND  POTASH.     ALUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  or  gray- 
ish white  ;  occurs  in  efflorescences  on  argillaceous  minerals, 
chiefly  on  alum  slate,  or  alum  stone;  also  in  crusts  and  sta- 
lactites, or  massive,  with  a  fibrous  texture  ;  taste,  sweetish  and 
astringent. 

Composition.  Alumine  15.25  ;  oxide  of  iron  7.50;  potash 
0.25;  sulphuric  acid  and  water  77. — Klaproth. 

(Artificial  alum.)  Alumine  10.50;  potash  10.40;  sulphuric 
acid  30.52;  water  48.58. —  Vauquelin. 

Native  alum  is  found  in  volcanic  countries,  but  more  com- 
monly on  alum  slate,  where  it  is  formed  by  the  combination  of 
the  alumine,  potash,  and  sulphuric  acid,  which  the  stone  con- 
tains. 

Localities.  Scotland,  in  the  coal  mines  near  Paisley.  Bo- 
hemia, in  many  places  on  alum  slate.  In  the  vicinity  of  vol- 
canoes, as  Stromboli,  Solfatera^  Vesuvius,  &c. 

How  is  the  ammonia  of  commerce  prepared  1 — What  are  the  minerals  of 
the  fourth  class  chiefly  composed  of] — What  is  the  composition  of  alum  1 


MINERALOGY.  199 

U.  S.  Catskill  mountain,  and  twelve  miles  from  Catskill, 
N.  Y  Fs7avesink  hills,  N.  J.  Several  places  in  Ohio.  Pow- 
nal,  Vt.  Leyden,  Mass.  Bolton,  Conn. 

Mode  of  making  alum. — Ferber  says,  that  the  rocks  which 
yield  the  Roman  alum,  are  situated  at  Tolfa,  in  Italy.  In 
colour,  they  are  white,  or  whitish  gray.  They  are  conside- 
rably elevated,  and  full  of  large  excavations  made  by  the 
workmen,  who  descend  by  ropes,  and  procure  the  kind  proper 
for  use,  by  blasting. 

Having  raised  the  alum  stone  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  it 
is  first  calcined  in  a  wood  fire,  and  then,  while  hot,  thrown 
into  reservoirs  of  water,  where  it  remains  until  the  alum  is 
extracted  by  the  water.  The  liquor  is  then  drawn  off*  and 
boiled  in  brass  pans,  until  it  is  in  a  proper  state  for  the  alum  to 
crystallize,  when  it  is  removed  into  wooden  coolers,  and  al- 
lowed to  shoot  into  crystals.  While  boiling,  a  quantity  of  lime 
is  mixed  with  the  lixivium. 

The  alum  rock  contains  sulphate  of  iron,  alumine,  and  pot- 
ash. The  calcination  converts  the  sulphur  to  sulphuric  acid, 
which  uniting  to  the  alumine  and  potash,  forms  sulphate  of 
alumine  and  potash,  or  alum.  When  the  rock  contains  no  al- 
kali, a  little  is  added,  and  for  this  purpose,  wood  ashes  is  com- 
monly used. 

U.  S.  At  Cape  Sable,  Md.  is  a  manufactory  of  alum.  The 
ore  consists  of  earthy  lignite,  mixed  with  pyrites.  This  is 
piled  in  heaps,  and  suffered  to  remain  in  that  state  for  about  a 
year,  when  the  sulphur  is  acidified  by  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  then  lixiviated,  and  the  liquor  concentrated  by 
boiling,  when  crystals  of  alum  are  formed. — Cleveland's 
Mineralogy. 

Species^,.     ALUM-STONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  brownish,  or 
reddish ;  occurs  massive  and  crystallized ;  form  the  obtuse 
rhomboid,  variously  modified  by  truncation,  one  or  more  of 
the  solid  angles  being  commonly  replaced;  crystals  very  mi- 
nute, and  generally  found  in  the  cavities  of  the  massive  j 
massive,  translucent ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  fracture  conchoidal, 
splintery,  or  sometimes  earthy:  sp.  gr.  from  2.42  to  2.77. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  emits  a  sulphureous 
gas,  and  afterwards  absorbs  moisture  from  the  tongue,  and 
gives  the  taste  of  alum  ;  insoluble  in  water. 

What  is  the  mode  of  making  alum  ?— What  are  the  chemical  combi- 
nations by  which  alum  is  formed  ?— Where  is  alum  manufactured  in  thi»' 
country  ? 


200  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.  Alumine  43.92 ;  silex  24  ;  sulphuric  acid 
25;  potash  3. 08;  water  4. —  Vauquelin. 

Prof.  Mohs  says,  that  on  charcoal,  by  itself,  it  does  not 
melt,  but  is  fusible  with  borax  into  a  colourless  glass,  and  that 
when  reduced  to  powder,  it  is  soluble  in  sulphuric  acid. 

Localities.  Tolfa,  near  Rome;  also  in  Tuscany,  and  Hun- 
gary, and  in  the  vicinity  of  several  burning  mountains.  Ac- 
cording to  Cordier,  as  quoted  by  Phillips,  it  exists  in  almost 
all  burning  mountains. 

Uses.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alum,  and  the  supe 
rior  quality  of  that  produced  at  Tolfa,  is  ascribed  to  the  em- 
ployment of  this  mineral. — Mohs, 

Species  3.     ALKALINE  FLUATE  OF  LIME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish  white,  or 
brownish;  occurs  massive;  structure  perfectly  lamellar,  with 
joints  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  a  rectangular  prism ;  trans- 
lucent ;  becomes  transparent  by  immersion  in  water ;  not  so 
hard  as  fluor :  sp.  gr.  2.94. 

Chemical  characters.  Fuses  into  a  transparent  globule, 
which  becomes  opake  on  cooling. 

Composition.  Alumine  21 ;  soda  32;  fluoric  acid  and  wa- 
ter 47. —  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  West  Greenland,  in  two  small  layers  in  gneiss, 
one  of  which  contains  the  white  variety,  and  the  other  those 
that  are  coloured. 

Species  4.     AMBLYGONITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  white,  or  sea  green; 
occurs  in  rhombic  prisms,  which  are  rough  externally ;  clea- 
vage parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  prism  ;  lustre  brilliant;  trans- 
parent, or  translucent  when  in  thin  laminae  ;  hardness  equal 
to  felspar:  sp.  gr.  3.00. 

Chemical  characters.  Easily  fusible,  with  intumescence, 
into  a  white  enamel. 

Composition.  Alumine,  lithia,  phosphoric,  and  fluoric  acids. 

Berzelius  considers  it  as  a  double  sub-phosphate  of  alumine 
and  lithia,  containing  fluoric  acid. 

Locality.  Near  Penig,  in  Saxony,  where  it  occurs  in  granite 
along  with  tourmaline  and  topaz. 

Species  5.   ANHYDROUS  SULPHATE  OF  SODA  AND  LIME. 

GLAUBERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  or  grayish  white ; 
What  is  said  of  alum  stone  ? 


MINERALOGY.  201 

occurs  massive,  and  in  the  form  of  flat  rhombic  prisms ;  late- 
ral planes  striated  transversely;  the  terminal  ones  smooth; 
structure  foliated  ;  lustre  vitreous  ;  streak  white ;  semi-trans- 
parent; yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  2.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  decrepitation,  into  a 
white  enamel.  If  thrown  into  water  it  becomes  opake,  and  is 
partly  dissolved.  The  same  happens  if  exposed  to  a  moist 
atmosphere. 

Composition.  Sulphate  of  soda  51.0  ;  sulphate  of  lime  49.0. 
— Brongniart. 

Localities.  Near  Ocana,  in  New-Castle,  also  in  Upper 
Austria. 

Species  6.     POLYHALLITE.* — Stromeyer. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brick-red  or  colourless ;  oc- 
curs in  amorphous  masses,  partly  compact  and  partly  fibrous; 
fibres,  parallel  or  curved;  transparent  or  translucent;  the 
compact  yields  to  cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  the 
cube  ;  brittle;  scratches  calcareous  spar:  sp.  gr.  about  2.77. 

Chemical  characters.  In  the  flame  of  a  candle  becomes  an 
opake  mass  of  a  brownish  colour ;  melts  instantly  before  the 
blow  pipe. 

Coinposition.  Sulphate  of  lime  28.25 ;  anhydrous  sulphate 
of  lime  28.42;  anhydrous  sulphate  of  magnesia  20.03;  sul- 
phate of  potash  27.70;  muriate  of  soda  0.19;  red  oxide  of 
iron  0.34. — Stromeyer. 

Localities.  Ischel,  in  Upper  Austria ;  also  at  Vic,  in  Lor- 
raine ;  in  both  places  among  rock  salt. 

CLASS  V. 

ALKALINO-EARTHY  MINERALS. 

The  minerals  belonging  to  this  class,  consist  of  earths  in 
various  proportions;  including  generally,  in  their  composition, 
one  or  more  of  the  alkalies.     Many  of  them  also  contain 
small  quantities  of  the  oxides  of  one  or  more  metals,  as  iron, 
or  manganese,  from  which  they  derive  their  colours:  but  these 
are  not  considered  essential  ingredients. 
Species  ].     MICA.J 
External  characters.     Colours,  white,  green,  brown,  black. 

*  From  the  Greek,  signifying  a  stone  of  many  salts? 
t  Vulgarly  called  isinglass.     Its  name  comes  from  the  Latin,  mtco,  to 
shine,  or  glitter. 

What  is  the  composition  of  glauherite  1 — What  are  the  properties  of  poly- 
hallite? — What  are  the  minerals  of  the  fifth  .class  chiefly  composed  off-- 
What  are  the  colours  of  mica? 


K«  INTRODUCTION  TO 

red>  yellowish,  and  bluish ;  occurs  crystallized,  massive,  and 
disseminated;  form  six-sided  tables,  and  oblique  rhombic 
prisms;  structure  perfectly  foliated;  lustre  glittering,  or 
somewhat  metallic ;  translucent ;  the  white  variety,  in  thin 
pieces,  transparent ;  easily  separable  into  thin  plates,  which 
are  flexible  and  elastic  to  a  high  degree ;  yields  easily  to  the 
knife:  sp.  gr.  about  2.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  an  enamel  of  different 
colours,  depending  on  that  of  the  mica. 

Composition.  (From  Siberia.)  Silex  48;  alumine  34.25; 
'potash  8.75  ;  oxide  of  iron  4.5  ;  of  manganese  0.5  ;  water  L25. 
— Klaproth. 

There  is  much  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  several 
coloured  varieties. 

Distinctive  characters.  Talc,  which  it  most  resembles,  is 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  and  inelastic.  Foliated  gypsum,  which 
it  also  resembles,  is  inelastic,  and  in  the  heat  of  a  candle, 
instantly  turns  white  and  opake.  Cyanite  is  harder,  inelastic, 
and  infusible. 

Variety  1.     PLUMOSE  MICA. 

The  most  common  colour  is  grayish  white,  but  it  may  as- 
sume any  of  the  colours  of  the  species.  It  occurs  in  fine  deli- 
cate crystals,  diverging  from  a  central  line,  so  as  to  imitate 
the  feathers  of  a  quill,  or  plume,  whence  the  name. 

Variety  2.     LAMINATED  MICA. 

It  occurs  in  large  plates,  which,  according  to  Hauy,  are 
sometimes  found  in  Russia,  a  yard  in  extent.  It  is  easily 
separated  into  thin  shining  lamince. 

Mica,  although  it  does  not  form  beds  alone,  is  a  very  abun- 
dant mineral,  being  universally  distributed  among  primitive 
Tocks,  and  forming  an  essential  ingredient  in  granite,  gneiss, 
and  mica  slate. 

Hence  its  localities  are  in  every  primitive  country,  and  only 
a  few,  where  fine  specimens  occur,  will  be  mentioned. 

Localities.  V.  S.  Germantown,  Penn.  in  six-sided  ta 
bles  and  prisms. —  Wister.  In  the  Highlands,  at  Muno  iron 
works,  N.  Y.  in  black  six-sided  tables,  six  inches  in  diameter. 
— Pierce.  Woodbury,  Conn.,  violet-coloured ;  also  at  Wa- 
tertown,  occurs  the  plumose  variety,  and  near  Hartford,  in 
small  crystalline  masses  resembling  the  garnet.  Bellows 

What  minerals  most  resemble  mica,  and  how  is  mica  distinguished  from 
them  ?*-What  are  the  varieties  of  mica  1 


MINERALOGY.  203 

Falls,  Vt.  rose-coloured. — Silliman.  Brunswick,  Maine,  of 
a  beautiful  green. — Cleveland. 

Other  localities.  Ac  worth,  N.  H.  in  distinct  crystals,  often 
remarkable  for  their  size  and  perfection.  Also  in  twin  crys- 
tals. Greenfield,  near  Saratoga,  of  a  rich  green  colour. 
Orange  county,  N.  Y.  in  distinct  crystals.  Chesterfield, 
Mass.,  in  rose-coloured  crystals  ;  also  at  Goshen,  with  tourma- 
line, or  beryl.  Greenwood,  N.  Y.  near  the  Munroe  iron 
works,  of  a  green  colour,  in  a  vein  a  foot  in  thickness.  Hen- 
derson, Jefferson  county,  N  .Y.  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  in  ta- 
bles of  a  large  size.  Middletown,  Conn,  with  lepidolite  ;  also 
at  Haddam,  with  chrysoberyl. 

Uses.  It  was  formerly  employed  for  the  windows  of  houses, 
instead  of  glass,  and  until  lately,  was  used  in  the  Russian 
ships  of  war,  it  being  not  so  liable  as  glass  to  be  broken  by 
the  discharge  of  cannon.  At  the  present  time,  it  is  used  in- 
stead of  horn,  or  glass,  in  lanterns,  and  for  enclosing  objects 
for  the  microscope. 

Lowry  says,  that  in  Siberia,  mica  is  quarried,  and  employed 
for  the  purposes  to  which  glass  is  applied  in  Europe. 

Species  2.     LEUCITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  white,  and 
reddish  white ;  occurs  in  small  angular  masses,  apparently 
rounded  by  attrition  ;  also  in  crystals,  whose  sides  are  bounded 
by  twenty-four  equal  and  similar  trapeziums ;  crystals  some- 
times elongated ;  angles  often  rounded  j  transparent,  passing" 
into  opake  :  lustre,  shining  vitreous  ;  structure  obscurely  la- 
mellar;  scratches  glass  with  difficulty:  sp.  gr.  2.47. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone  ;  with  borax,  slowly 
dissolves  into  a  diaphanous  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  53.75  ;  alumine  24.62:  potash  21.35. 
— KlapToth. 

It  is  found  in  the  products  of  volcanoes,  which  circumstance 
will  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  the  minerals  it  most  resem- 
bles. 

Localities.  Italy  and  Bohemia,  in  basalt  and  lava.  The 
road  from  Rome  to  Frascati,  is  said  in  many  places  to  be 
covered  with  it. 

*  Signifying  a  white  stone. 

What  are  the  varieties  of  mica  ?— What  are  the  uses  of  mica?— What  are 
the  colours  and  crystalline  forms  of  leucite? — In  what  situations  is  leu- 
cite  found  ? 


204  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  3.     ANDALUCITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  reddish,  or  purplish  red ; 
occurs  massive,  and  in  rectangular,  or  slightly  rhombic  prisms; 
structure  lamellar,  with  joints  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  rhom- 
bic prism;  translucent  or  opake;  easily  frangible:  sp.  gr. 
about  3  ;  scratches  quartz,  and  sometimes  spinelle. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  with  borax  melts  into 
a  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  52 ;  silex  38 ;  potash  8 ;  oxide  of 
iron  2. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  distinguished  from  felspar,  by 
its  greater  hardness  and  higher  specific  gravity,  and  from 
corundum  by  its  inferior  specific  gravity  and  its  form. — 
Jameson. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks  only. 

Localities.  Andalusia,  in  Spain.  Forez,  in  France,  in  a 
vein  of  felspar.  Near  Frevberg,  and  at  Penig,  in  Saxony. 
Wicklow  and  Kilkenny,  in  Ireland. 

U.  S.  Readfield,  in  Maine. — Cleveland.  East  Bradford, 
Penn. 

Species  4.     BucnoLZiTE.f 

External  characters.  Colours,  black,  and  white,  arranged 
in  spots;  occurs  amorphous;  lustre  glittering,  and  glassy,  or 
sometimes  waxy ;  the  black  part  separates  into  fibres ;  cross 
fracture  conchoidal ;  structure  indistinctly  lamellar;  frag- 
ments wedge-shaped ;  opake  or  translucent  on  the  edges ; 
scratches  glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  50;  silex  46;  potash  1.5;  oxide 
of  iron  2.5. — Brandes. 

Localities.     The  Tyrol.     First  noticed  by  Dr.  Brandes 

U.  S.     Brandywine  creek,  Del. — NuttalL 

Species  5.     ICHTHYOPHTHALMITE.J     APOPHYLLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish  white,  green- 
ish, or  rose-red ;  occurs  in  square  prismatic  crystals,  and  in 
laminated  masses ;  crystals  often  truncated  on  the  solid  an- 
gles, by  triangular  planes,  so  as  to  give  them  a  four-sided 
pyramidal  termination;  lustre  glistening  and  pearly ;  structure 

+  From  Andalusia,  in  Spain,  where  it  was  first  found. 

t  After  Bucholz,  the  chemist. 

t  From  the  Greek,  meaning  fish-eye-stone,  owing  to  its  peculiar  lustre. 

What  are  the  most  obvious  characters  of  bucholzite?— Whence  does 
Ichthyophthalmite derive  its  name'? 


MINERALOGY.  205 

foliated,  and  easily  separable  into  thin  .shining  plates,  like  those 
of  selenite  ;  brittle;  translucent,  or  nearly  transparent:  sp.  gr. 
about  2.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Exfoliates,  and  finally  melts  into  a 
blebby  glass.  In  nitric  acid,  divides  into  flakes. 

Composition.  SilexSl;  lime  28;  potash  4 ;  water  17. — 
Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  adularia,  sulphate  of 
strontian,  and  barytes.  It  is  much  softer  than  the  first,  and 
does  not,  like  barytes,  give  a  fetid  taste  when  melted,  nor  like 
strontian  a  sour  one.  Neither  of  these  substances  form  flakes 
in  nitric  acid. 

Localities.  Utoe,  in  Sweden,  in  a  lamellar  limestone. 
Arendal,  in  Norway.  East  Gothland.  Fassa,  in  the  Tyro], 
and  in  the  Isle  of  Sky. 

U.  S.  Near  Lake  Champlain,  N.  Y.-— Cleveland.  Near 
Saybrook,  Conn. — Gibbs.  Peter's  Point,  Nova  Scotia. 

Variety  1.     ALBIN.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  opake  white;  occurs  in 
crystalline  and  laminated  masses ;  forms  a  jelly  with  nitric 
acid ;  found  in  Bohemia. 

Species  6.     CUMMINGTONITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  ash  gray,  passing  into 
brown  ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  thin,  crystalline,  stellular  ag- 
gregations ;  fibres  often  curved ;  lustre  silky,  or  pearly ;  brit- 
tle; translucent,  or  opake:  sp.  gr.  3.20. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  the  angles  becoming 
glazed.  With  borax  fuses  into  a  black  glass. 

Composition.  Silica  56.543  ;  protoxide  of  iron  21.669  ;  pro- 
toxide of  manganese  7.802;  soda  8.439;  volatile  matter  3.178. 
— Muir. 

Localities.  Cummingtonite  is  found  at  Cummington,  and 
Plain  field,  Mass,  in  mica-slate,  associated  with  garnet,  and 
white  iron  pyrites. 

Species  7.     NACRITE.! 

External  characters.  Colours,  pearl-white,  greenish,  or 
gray ;  occurs  in  minute  aggregated  scales ;  lustre  pearly ; 
friable ;  unctuous  to  the  touch  ;  adheres  to  the  fingers ;  gives 

*  From  the  Latin  albus,  white, 
t  From  the  French  nacre,  pearl. 

How  is  apophyllite  distinguished  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles  ?— 
Where  is  this  mineral  found  in  this  country  1 
18 


206  INTRODUCTION  TO 

out  an  argillaceous  odour  when  breathed  on  ;  swells  on  being 
moistened. 

Chemical  characters.     Swells,  and  melts  with  ease. 

Composition.  Silex  50  ;  alumine26  ;  lime  1.5  ;  potash  17.5  \ 
oxide  of  iron  5;  and  a  trace  of  muriatic  acid. —  Vauquelin, 

Distinctive  characters*— Lepidolite,  which  it  resembles,  is 
of  a  lilac  colour,  and  not  so  unctuous.  It  is  more  easily  fused 
than  talc,  and  never  is  of  so  dark  a  colour  as  chlorite. 

It  is  "met  with  in  small  masses  in  the  cavities  of  primitive 
rocks,  and  particularly  in  quartz. 

Localities.  Near  Freyberg,  in  Saxony.  At  Piedmont,  and 
in  Bohemia. 

U.  S.     Farmington,  Conn.     Smithfield,  R.  I. 

Species  8.     HAUYNE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  indigo-blue,  and  opake,  01 
bluish  green,  and  translucent;  occurs  in  grains,  in  crystals, 
and  massive ;  form  the  dodecahedron,  Avith  brilliant  faces ; 
harder  than  quartz  ;  very  brittle  ;  structure  imperfectly  folia- 
ted ;  lustre  vitreous :  sp.  gr.  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  loss  of  colour,  into  a 
porous  glass  ;  with  borax  into  a  diaphanous  glass,  which  turns 
yellow  on  cooling.  In  powder,  it  forms  a  jelly  with  acids. 

Composition.  Silex  30  ;  alumine  15  ;  sulphate  of  lime  20.5 ; 
lime  5;  potash  11;  oxide  of  iron  1;  water  17.5. — Phil- 
lips. 

Localities.  In  the  vicinity  of  Nemi,  Albano,  and  Frascati, 
in  Italy,  associated  with  mica,  leucite,  and  augite.  Also  near 
Vesuvius;  and  Tyree,  one  of  the  Scottish  Isles,  in  limestone. 

Species  9.     OBSIDIAN. 

External  characters.  Colours,  black,  grayish,  or  brownish 
black;  also,  greenish,  bluish,  or  yellow;  occurs  in  roundish 
or  angular  masses ;  fracture  large  conchoidal,  with  round 
circular  lines,  increasing  in  dimensions  from  the  point  of  frac- 
ture; lustre  splendent  and  vitreous;  translucent  on  the  edges, 
or  opake;  scratches  glass;  easily  broken,  and  flies  like  glass: 
sp.  gr.  about  2.35. 

Chemical  characters.  Swells,  and  finally  melts  into  a  spongy 
mass.  It  does  not  melt  into  a  solid  glass  even  at  a  white  heat. 

*  In  honour  of  the  celebrated  Hauy. 

What  is  the  appearance  of  nacrite,  and  in  what  situations  is  it  found  ? — 
What  are  the  colours  of  obsidian,  and  what  common  substance  does  it  most 
resemble  ? 


MINERALOGY.  .207 

Composition.  (That  of  Hecla.)  Silex  78;  alumine  10, 
potash  6;  lime  1 ;  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese  3.6, —  Vau- 
quelin. 

Obsidian,  in  its  aspect,  fracture,  and  lustre,  very  much  re- 
sembles coloured  glass,  as  the  thick  part  of  a  broken  junk 
bottle.  It  also  may  resemble  pitchstone. 

Sometimes  it  is  variegated,  presenting  several  colours  in 
the  same  specimen,  and  some  pieces  exhibit  a  plaj  of  colours, 
with  a  pearly  lustre. 

The  origin  of  obsidian  has  been  a  subject  of  considerable 
doubt  and  dispute  among  mineralogists.  Some  supposed,  from 
the  circumstance  of  its  being  commonly  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  volcanoes,  that  it  is  of  igneous  origin,  and  that,  indeed,  it  is 
only  a  mixture  of  silicious  and  alkaline  substances  reduced  to 
glass  by  volcanic  fire,  hence  it  is  called  volcanic  glass. 

On  the  contrary,  obsidian  has  occasionally  been  found  with 
the  remains  of  decomposed  granite,  gneiss,  and  porphyry,  and 
even  alternating  with  beds  of  the  latter.  Other  mineralogists, 
therefore,  suppose  that  it  is  of  aqueous  origin. — See  Pinker- 
ton1  s  Petrology. 

But  it  is  said,  that  wherever  obsidian  has  been  found,  there 
always  exists  marks  of  volcanic  agency  in  the  neighbourhood  ; 
so  that,  on  the  whole,  there  is  little  doubt  but  this  substance 
owes  its  origin  to  volcanic  heat, 

Localities.  Hecla,  and  in  almost  every  part  of  Iceland. 
Also  in  the  Lipari  Islands,  in  TenerifTe,  Peru,  Mexico,  &c. 

Variety  1.     PEAR!  STONE.* 

External  characters.'  Colours,  gray,  grayish-black,  brown- 
ish, reddish,  or  yellowish  ;  occurs  in  large,  coarse,  angular 
concretions,  consisting  of  grains,  or  smaller  concretions,  com- 
posed of  lamellas ;  concretions  often  embrace  a  nucleus  of 
obsidian;  surface  smooth  and  shining;  lustre  pearly;  trans- 
lucent on  the  edges,  or  opake  ;  scratches  glass;  very  fragile ; 
gives  an  argillaceous  odour,  when  breathed  on:  sp.  gr.  2.34. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  intumescence,  into  a 
white  frothy  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  75.25  ;  alumine  12;  lime  0.5  ;  potash 
4.5;  oxide  of  iron  1.6;  water  4.5. — Klaproth. 

Pearlstone  occurs  in  the  same  geological  situations  with  ob- 

*  From  its  pearly  lustre. 


What  is  the  most  probable  origin  of  obsidian  ?— What  is  supposed  to  be 
the  origin  of  pearlstone'?— Why  is  this  variety  called  pearlstone? 


208  INTRODUCTION  TO 

sidian,  and  the  same  arguments  and  objections  are  brought  for 
and  against  its  igneous  and  aqueous  origin. 

Localities.  Tokay,  in  Hungary,  where  it  is  found  enclo- 
sing black  masses  of  obsidian.  Cape  de  Gatt,  in  Spain.  An- 
trim, in  Ireland,  &c. 

Species  10.     GIESECKITE. — Stromeyer. 

External  characters.  Colours,  externally  brownish,  inter- 
nally green* ish,  intermixed  with  black ;  occurs  in  six-sided 
prisms;  fracture  uneven,  splintery;  cleavage  not  perceptible  ; 
lustre  waxy  ;  has  the  appearance  of  soapstone,  more  than  of  a 
crystalline  mineral ;  opake  or  translucent  on  the  edges :  yields 
to  the  knife ;  streak  whitish  ;  scratches  glass  :  sp.  gr.  2.7  to  2.9. 

Composition.  Silex  46.27;  alumine  33.82;  magnesia  1.2  •, 
potash  6.2;  oxide  of  iron  3.35  ;  water  4.8. — Stromeyer. 

Locality.  Greenland,  from  whence  it  was  brought  by  Sir 
C.  Giesecke.  Hence  the  name. 

Species  11.     FELSPAR.* 

Few  minerals  are  more  widely  diffused  than  this.  It  forms 
a  necessary  part  of  most  primitive  and  many  secondary  rocks. 
Its  colours  are  various,  but  it  has  a  peculiar  lustre,  and  a  folia- 
ted structure,  by  which  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
minerals. 

It  has  several  varieties,  which  all  agree  in  respect  to  struc- 
ture and  peculiarity  of  lustre. 

Variety  1.     COMMON  FELSPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish,  gray,browu, 
bluish,  red,  and  green ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and 
crystallized ;  form,  an  oblique  prism,  the  sides  of  which  are 
unequal,  and  vary  from  four  to  ten  in  number  ;  primitive  form, 
the  oblique  parallelepiped ;  common  forms,  a  broad  six-sided 
prism,  terminated  by  dihedral  summits,  the  planes  of  which 
stand  on  the  narrow  faces  of  the  prism;  an  oblique  four-sided 
prism,  flatly  bevelled  on  the  extremities ;  a  six-sided  prism, 
terminated  by  five  unequal  faces;  structure  foliated  ;  cleavage 
in  two  directions ;  lustre  shining,  and  often  pearly ;  translu- 
cent ;  the  dark  varieties  nearly  opake :  cross  fracture  con- 
choidal ;  fragments  rhomboidal ;  crystals  generally  indistinct, 
and  closely  aggregated,  crossing  each  other,  or  forming  hemi- 
tropes;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.54. 

*  From  the  German,  signifying  field-spar,  from  its  being  often  found 
loose  in  fields. 

t 

Whence  does  felspar  derive  its  name  ? — What  are  the  colours  of  common 
felspar  1— What  are  its  crystalline  forms  ? 


Fig.  134. 


MINERALOGY. 


Fig.  134.   An  oblique  parallelepiped,  the  primi 
live  form. 


Fig.  135.  A  short  six-sided  prism,  truncated  on 
four  of  its  lateral  edges,  forming  a  ten-sided  crystal, 
with  alternate  broad  and  narrow  faces,  and  termi 
nated  by  four  unequal  planes. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  white  translucent 
enamel. 

Composition.  Silex  62.83 ;  aluminel7;  potash  13;  lime 
3;  oxide  of  iron  1. —  Vauquelin. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  composition  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  this  species,  and  particularly  in  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  alumine  and  potash  which  they  contain. 

This  variety  is  very  generally  diffused,  and  perhaps  is  more 
common  than  any  other  mineral,  with  the  exception  of  quartz, 
the  ores  of  iron,  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

It  forms  a  constituent  part  of  gneiss,  granite,  and  mica-slate, 
among  primitive  rocks ;  and  of  greenstone,  and  most  volcanic 
substances,  among  those  of  secondary  formations.  It  also 
occurs  in  porphyry  and  sienite. 

Felspar,  according  to  Pinkerton,  intermixed  with  small 
quantities  of  other  minerals,  forms  entire  mountains  in  several 
parts  of  the  globe. 

Felspar  with  garnets,  forms  a  mountain  in  the  west  of  Scot- 
land. In  Siberia,  the  common  foliated  felspar,  forms  entire 
mountains.  In  the  north  of  Scotland,  there  are  mountains, 
and  large  strata  of  the  same  mineral. 

Variety  2.     ADULARIA.     MOONSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  bluish-white,  some- 
times with  tints  of  green,  yellow,  or  red  ;  occurs  in  rolled  mass- 
es, in  crystals  of  the  forms  above  described,  and  disseminated 
in  granite  ;  lustre  pearly,  and  especially  when  cut  and  polish- 

f * _____ 

What  is  the  composition  of  felspar  1 — Is  felspar  a  common  or  rare  mine- 
ral?— What  is  adulariaa  variety  of  ? 

18* 


210  INTRODUCTION  TO 

ed,  it  throws  out  greenish  and  bluish  white  chatoyant  reflec- 
tions from  the  interior ;  fracture  uneven  ;  cleavage  in  two 
directions;  crystals  often  present  the  hemitrope  arrangement, 
which  in  polished  specimens  becomes  obvious  from  the  differ- 
ent directions  of  the  grain,  or  laminss :  sp.  gr.  2.54. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  64 ;  alumine  20  ;  lime  2  ;  potash  14. 
• —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  common  felspar,  into  which 
it  passes,  it  differs  in  being  more  translucent,  and  in  displaying 
strong  pearly  reflections.  Cat's-eye  is  harder,  and  has  not 
its  foliated  structure ;  it  is  harder  than  ichthyophthalmite,  stron- 
tian,  or  barytes ;  the  two  last  also  possess  peculiar-  chemical 
properties.  Spodurnene  splits  and  flies  when  heated. 

Adularia  is  found  in  cavities  of  granite,  gneiss,  clay-slate, 
arid  limestone. 

Localities.  St.  Gothard  yields  the  finest  specimens,  some- 
times a  foot  in  thickness.  Beautiful  specimens  also  come 
from  Ceylon. 

U.  S.  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.  of  a  milk-white  colour,  also  on 
the  margin  of  Lake  Champlain,  at  a  place  called  Split-rock. 
— Hall.  Near  Baltimore,  Md. — Gilmor.  Germantown  and 
Conestoga  creek,  Penn.  Haddam,  Conn.  Near  the  city  of 
New- York.  Southampton,  Oakham,  and  West  Springfield, 
Mass.  Lyme,  Conn. 

According  to  Jameson,  the  water  opal,  and  the  fire  opal  of 
the  Italians,  as  well  as  the  sun-stone,  which  is  distinguished  by 
its  red  colour  and  beautiful  silvery  reflections,  are  varieties  of 
adularia. 

Uses.  Adularia  is  sometimes  polished  for  jewelry.  It  is 
commonly  cut  with  a  convex  surface  like  the  cat's-eye,  but  is 
easily  distinguished  from  it,  by  observing  that  the  reflections 
proceed  from  particular  points  on  a  plane  surface,  whereas  in 
the  cat's-eye,  the  pearly  light  is  obvious  in  every  direction 
Variety  3.  GLASSY  FELSPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  yellowish-white; 
occurs  commonly  in  broad  four-sided  crystals,  terminated  by 
two  planes;  lustre  vitreous,  or  glassy;  crystals  cracked  in 
various  directions  ;  transparent  or  translucent. 

Localities.  Solfatera,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary,  in  pumice. 
Isle  of  Arran,  in  Scotland,  in  pitchstone. 


How  does  adularia  differ  from  felspar  ? — Iff  what  situations  does  adula- 
ria occur? — Where  is  it  found  irr  this  countr  ? — What  is  the  use  of  adu- 
laria? 


MINERALOGY.  211 

Variety  4.     LABRADOR  FELSPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  smoke  gray,  with  spots  of 
caulescent,  or  iridiscent,  variable  tints,  consisting  of  blue,  fire- 
re<4  green,  brown,  yellow,  or  orange,  according  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  light  falls  upon  it,  sometimes  several  of  these 
colours  are  perceptible  at  the  same  instant,  but  more  commonly 
they  appear  in  succession,  as  the  stone  is  turned  towards  the 
light ;  occurs  massive  ;  structure  like  that  of  common  felspar, 
and  easily  recognised  as  one  of  that  family. 

This  most  beautiful  variety  was  discovered  by  the  Moravian 
Missionaries,  on  the  Island  of  St.  Paul,  situated  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador. 

Dr.  Anderson,  who  gave  an  account  of  this  mineral,  soon 
after  its  discovery,  describes  it  as  displaying  all  the  variegated 
tints  of  colour  that  are  to  be  seen  in  the  plumage  of  the  pea- 
cock, pigeon,  or  most  delicate  humming-bird. 

Specimens  of  it  being  sent  to  England,  they  were  bought 
with  great  avidity,  and  the  desire  among  the  collectors  all  over 
Europe,  to  possess  specimens  was  so  great,  that  single  pieces 
were  sold  at  20/.  sterling. 

Localities.  Near  Petersburgh,  Russia.  Near  Laurwig,  in 
Norway.  Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  Labrador. 

U.  S.  Near  Lake  Charnplain,  N.  Y.  in  an  iron  mine. — 
Gibbs.  Near  Pompton  Hills,  N.  J.  in  a  large  rounded  mass, 
and  at  Amity,  N.  Y. 

That  of  Labrador  often  contains  magnetic  oxide  of  iron. 

Uses.  It  is  highly  valued  as  a  curiosity,  and  is  cut  and 
polished  for  ringstones,  and  breast-pins.  When  cut  in  an 
oblong  convex  shape,  or  en  cabochon,  as  the  French  term  it, 
most  of  the  colours  are  apparent  at  the  same  instant.  When 
held  between  the  eye  and  the  light,  it  appears  of  a  dingy  gray 
colour,  and  without  the  least  beauty ;  and  one  is  the  more  aston- 
ished after  viewing-  it  in  this  manner,  to  witness  the  beautiful 
Jisplay  of  colours  which  it  exhibits  by  the  reflected  light. 

Variety  5.     GREEN  FELSPAR, 

External  characters.  Colour,  apple  green  ;  occurs  in  the 
common  form  of  the  species.  It  is  called  Amazon  Stone. 

Localities.     Uralian  Mountains. 

U.  S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  in  granite.  At  Cow  Bay,  on 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.  colour  apple  green. — Pierce  and  Torrey. 
Topsham,  Maine,  in  imperfect  crystals. — Cleveland. 

.j _ 

What  are  the  peculiarities  of  Labrador  felspar  ?— Where  was  this  mine- 
ral first  discovered  ?— What  use  is  made  of  Labrador  felspar  1 


212  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  6.     COMPACT  FELSPAR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  bluish  white,  greenish, 
reddish,  brown  and  flesh  red,  colours  sometimes  arranged  in 
spots  or  stripes  ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  in  crystals ; 
texture  compact,  or  minutely  foliated ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
lustre  glimmering ;  translucent  on  the  edges :  sp.  gr.  from 
2.60  to  2.74. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  alone  into  a  white  porous 
enamel. 

Composition.  SilexSl;  alumineSO;  lime  11. 25:  soda  4  ; 
oxide  of  iron  1.75;  water  1.26. — Klaproth. 

It  is  one  of  the  constituent  parts  of  primitive,  transition,  and 
secondary  rocks.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  large  beds,  or  even 
forms  hills. 

Localities.     Saxony,  Tyrol,  Scotland,  &c. 

U.  S.  In  the  Fishkill  Mountains,  N.  Y.  in  gneiss.  Maiden, 
Dorchester,  and  Milton,  Mass.  Colours,  sometimes  red  and 
white,  arranged  in  veins. 

This  variety  resembles  hornstone,  and  sometimes  jasper. 

According  to  M.  Godon,  as  quoted  by  Cleveland,  the  vi- 
cinity of  Boston  furnishes  compact  felspar,  perfectly  analogous 
to  the  Turkey  stone  (hone) ;  and  also  a  veined  variety,  which 
strongly  resembles  certain  antique  engraved  stones  wrought 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  basso-relievo. 

Variety  1 .     FETID  FELSPAR. 
Necronite.* — Hay  den.     Sill.  Jour.  Sci.  Vol.  ii. 
External  characters.     Colour,  clear  white,  or  bluish  white  ; 
occurs  amorphous,  and  crystallized  in  hexahedral  prisms,  re- 
sembling the  beryl,  and  in  rhomboids  similar  to  the  form  of 
felspar ;  structure  lamellar ;  transparent,  passing  into  opake ; 
scratches  glass,  and  even  felspar  in  a  slight  degree ;  when 
struck,  or  pounded,  emits  a  most  noisome  cadaverous  smell. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  unalterable  even  with 
borax  in  the  strongest  heat  of  a  smith's  furnace.  Acids  do 
not  affect  it,  either  cold  or  hot. 

Locality.  This  mineral  appears  to  have  been  first  described 
by  Dr.  Hayden,  of  Baltimore,  who  discovered  it  in  1819, 
about  21  miles  from  that  city.  It  occurs  in  primitive  marble, 
associated  with  brown  mica,  sulphuret  of  iron,  and  tremolite. 

Variety  10.     ANORTHITE. — Rose. 

External  characters.     Colour,  and  streak,  white ;  occurs 
*  From  the  Greek,  in  allusion  to  its  cadaverous  smell. 
What  other  varieties  of  felspar  are  described  ? 


MINERALOGY.  213 

massive,  composed  of  rhomboidal  prismatic,  aggregated  crys- 
tals, resembling  those  of  albite  ;  cleavage  perfect  in  two  direc- 
tions ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  upon  the  planes  of  cleavage, 
pearly  •  in  other  directions  vitreous ;  translucent  or  transpa- 
rent; hardness,  that  of  felspar:  sp.  gr.  2.65  to  2.76. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  like  the  other  varieties  of  the 
species,  the  globule  being  turbid. 

Corn-position.  Silex  44.49  ;  alumine  34.46;  oxide  of  iron 
074:  lime  15. 68;  magnesia  5.26. — Rose. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  entirely  decomposed  by  con- 
centrated muriatic  acid. 

Locality.  Mount  Vesuvius,  lining  the  cavities  of  limestone, 
and  associated  with  augite. 

This  mineral  has  recently  been  discovered. 

Species  12.     TALC. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green  of  various  shades,  as 
emerald,  or  apple  green,  or  greenish  white;  occurs  massive, 
consisting  of  thin  folia  easily  separable  with  the  fingers,  also 
indurated  and  in  crystals;  lustre  shining;  translucent;  in 
thin  plates  transparent :  soft,  and  very  unctuous  to  the  touch  ; 
yields  easily  to  the  nail ;  folia  curved,  undulated,  or  straight ; 
lustre  shining,  pearly  ;  colour  of  the  thin  lamina  white. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  it  turns  white, 
the  laminae  separate,  and  the  thin  fibres  become  glazed. 
With  borax  it  melts  with  effervescence  into  a  greenish  trans- 
parent glass. 

Composition.  Silex  61;  magnesia  30.5;  potash  2.75; 
oxide  of  iron  2.5  ;  water  0.5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  mica,  but  this  is  both 
flexible  and  elastic,  while  talc  is  elastic  but  not  flexible. 
Chlorite  and  nacrite  are  fusible  without  difficulty.  Its  unc- 
tuosity  will  also  distinguish  it  from  these  substances,  and  from 
selenite  and  cyanite. 

It  occurs  in  primitive  rocks,  as  granite  and  serpentine, 
and  though  common  in  small  quantities,  is  never  very 
abundant. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Grafton,  Wind  ham,  Cavendish,  Lud- 
low,  &c.  Vt. — Hall.  Smithfield,  silvery  white,  with  rhomb 
spar. —  Webb.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  fibrous,  ligniform,  and 
foliated. — Hay  den.  Delaware  County,  Penn.  sometimes 


What  are  the  colours  of  talc  ?— What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  talc? 
—How  is  talc  distinguished  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles  1— Istala 
rough  or  unctuous  to  the  touch  ? 


214  INTRODUCTION  TO 

crystallized ;  also  on  the  Schuylkill,  ten  miles  from  Philadel- 
phia, of  a  fine  green  colour,  with  rhomb  spar. — Lea.  Had- 
dam  and  Litchfield,  Conn.  Southampton,  Cummington,  and 
Middlefield,  Mass.  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  limestone,  with  ac 
tynolite  j  colours,  silver-white,  and  apple-green. — Cleveland. 

Variety  1.     INDURATED  TALC. 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish-gray ;  occurs  mas- 
sive 5  texture  compact;  structure  slaty  5  lustre  a  little  pearly: 
less  soft  and  unctuous  than  common  talc;  translucent  on  the 
edges  ;  insensibly  passes  into  steatite.  It  is  found  in  primitive 
mountains,  in  clay-slate  and  serpentine. 

Localities.     Austria,  the  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  Scotland,  &e. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  pot- 
stone,  but  is  more  unctuous,  and  less  hard. 

Uses.  This  variety  is  employed  by  tailors,  to  Jrace  out 
their  work  on  woollen  cloth. 

Species  13.     STEATITE.     SOAPSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  various  shades  of  green, 
gray,  white,  yellow,  and  red,  and  always  dull;  gray  and  white 
are  the  most  common  ;  colours  commonly  arranged  in  spots, 
veins,  or  clouds;  occurs  massive,  forming  large  beds,  or  hills; 
fracture  splintery,  or  uneven,  with  marks,  of  confused  crystal- 
lization on  close  inspection  ;  yields  easily  so  the  knife,  and 
may  be  cut  when  first  taken  from  the  quarry;  unctuous  to  the 
touch  ;  translucent  on  the  edges;  leaves  a  shining  streak  :  sp. 
gr.  about  2.50. 

Chemical  characters.  Hardens,  turns  black,  but  is  hardly 
fusible. 

Composition.  Silex  64;  magnesia  22;  oxide  of  iron  3; 
water  5. —  Vauqueli7i. 

Soapstone  sometimes  presents  pseudo-morphous  crystals,  in 
the  form  of  carbonate  of  lime  or  quartz,  which  appear  to  have 
been  moulded  into  cavities  once  occupied  by  trne  crystals. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  less  unctuous  to  the  touch  than 
indurate  talc,  into  which  it  passes.  Jameson  observes,  that 
the  white  variety  approaches  to  lithomarge,  and  the  green  to 
fuller's  earth,  but  both  of  these  are  softer  and  adhere  to  the 
tongue.  Serpentine  is  harder  than  steatite,  and  not  so  unc- 
tuous. 


What  is  the  use  of  indurated  talc  7- -What  are  the  most  obvious  charac- 
ters of  soapstone  ? 


MINERALOGY.  215 

Steatite  occurs  in  masses,  and  in  beds  of  considerable 
extent,  in  primitive  mountains.  Sometimes,  according  to 
Pinkerton,  it  forms  mountains  or  hills  of  considerable  di- 
mensions. , 

Localities.  Cornwall,  in  England.  Bohemia,  Scotland, 
Spain,  Hebrides,  &c. 

U.  S.  New  Haven,  Litchfield,  and  Somers,  Conn.  At 
the  latter  place  it  is  quarried  extensively.  On  the  Schuylkill, 
ten  miles  from  Philadelphia,  Penn.  It  is  extensively  employ- 
ed. .  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  in  abundance.  Smith  field,  R.  I. 
It  is  employed  in  the  arts. — Eaton.  Grafton,  Vt.  This  stea- 
tite is  employed  in  the  construction  of  aqueducts. — Hall. 
Orford,  N.  H.  It  occurs  in  large  quantities,  and  is  extensively 
employed. —  Hall.  Near  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  Louisiana. 

According  to  Pinkerton,  the  Arabs  made  use  of  soapstone 
instead  of  soap. 

The  inhabitants  of  New  Caledonia,  it  is  confidently  said, 
either  eat  a  soft  kind  of  soapstone  alone,  or  mix  it  with  their 
food. 

Humboldt  says,  that  a  certain  race  of  inhabitants  on  the 
Oronoko,  are  almost  entirely  supported  by  a  kind  of  soapstone, 
for  three  months  of  the  year. 

Uses.  Soapstone  is  extensively  employed  in  the  arts  of  life, 
for  various  purposes.  It  is  soft  and  well  fitted  for  turning, 
cutting,  or  sawing.  It  is  bored  for  aqueducts,  and  will  pro- 
bly  come  into  general  use  for  this  purpose,  being  much  cheaper 
than  lead,  and  without  the  least  deleterious  property.  It  re- 
sists the  fire,  and  is  well  calculated  for  the  backs  of  chimneys, 
and  the  sides  of  fire-places,  &c.  After  being  heated,  it  will 
receive  a  tolerable  polish,  and  might  be  employed  for  jambs 
instead  of  marble. 

Variety  1.     POTSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  gray,  passing  into 
leek  green,  often  spotted;  occurs  massive;  texture  compact; 
structure  slaty ;  unctuous  to  the  touch;  often  yields  to  the 
nail;  not  easily  broken  ;  lustre  glistening;  opake ;  fracture 
earthy,  or  uneven;  odour  argillaceous:  sp.  gr.  nearly  3. 

Composition.  Silex38;  magnesia  35  ;  iron  15;  alumino 
7  ;  with  a  little  lime  and  fluoric  acid. —  Weiglib. 

It  is  found  with  serpentine,  argillite,  end  soapstone. 

Locality.     Como,  in  Lombardy,  where  it  has  been  quarried 


What  are  the  uses  of  soapstone  ? 


216  INTRODUCTION  TO 

more  or  less,  ever  since  the  days  of  Pliny,  and  turned  into 
culinary  vessels.     Hence  the  name  potstone. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  potstone  from  indurated 
talc  and  soapstone.  It  is,  however,  commonly  less  unctuous 
than  the  former,  and  more  compact  and  finer  grained  than  the 
latter. 

Variety  2.     AGALMATOLITE.     CHINESE  FIGURE  STONE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish,  or  yellowish  green  ; 
sometimes  with  veins  of  lilac,  or  brown:  occurs  massive; 
greasy  to  the  touch;  translucent;  texture  compact;  easily 
cut  with  the  knife  ;  receives  a  polish  :  sp.  gr.  2.8. 

Chemical  characters.  Whitens  and  becomes  opake,  but 
does  not  melt. 

Composition.  Silex  56 ;  alumine  29  ;  lime  2  ;  potash  7  ; 
oxide  of  iron  1  :  water  5. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  nephrite  in  colour, 
translucency,  and  texture,  but  is  much  softer. 

It  comes  from  China,  carved  into  the  form  of  grotesque 
images,  and  chimney  ornaments.  It  is  also  found  in  Nagyag, 
in  Transylvania,  and  in  Wales. 

Species  14.     CHLORITE. 

Chlorite  occurs  crystallized,  compact,  slaty,  and  earthy. 
As  its  name  signifies,  it  is  always  of  a  green  colour,  usually 
dark ;  it  is  slightly  unctuous  to  the  touch,  but  much  less  so 
than  talc.  When  moistened,  it  commonly  yields  the  odour  of 
clay.  Most  varieties  yield  to  the  nail. 

Variety  1.     CRYSTALLIZED  CHLORITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  leek-green  ;  occurs  in 
flat  six-sided  crystals;  structure  foliated,  and  readily  divisible 
into  thin  layers;  lustre  shining;  crystals  occur  separate  and 
intersecting  each  other,  in  small  masses,  or  investing  other 
minerals. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty  into  an  ash- 
gray  scoria.  With  borax  forms  a  green  glass. 

It  is  found  in  the  veins  and  cavities  of  primitive  rocks  with 
chalcedony,  axinite,  felspar,  &c. 

Variety  2.     COMMON  CHLORITE. 
External  characters.      Colours,  leek  green,  or  blackish 


How  does  potstone  differ  from  soapstone  ? — What  is  said  of  Chinese 
figure  stone  ? — What  are  the  forms  in  which  chlorite  occurs  ? — What  are 
the  colours  of  ehlorite  ?— What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  chlorite? 


MINERALOGY.  217 

green ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  minute  scales,  or  of  an. 
earthy  texture;  lustre  shining,  or  glimmering;  slightly  unc- 
tuous; yields  to  the  nail:  sp.  gr.  from  2.6  to  2.9. 

Chemical  characters.     The  same  as  above. 

Composition.  Silex  26  ;  magnesia  8  ;  alumine  18.5  ;  oxide 
of  iron  43;  muriate  of  soda  and  potash  2.0;  water  2. —  Vau- 
quelin. 

There  is  much  difference  in  the  proportions  of  these  ingre- 
dients. Lampidius  obtained  only  9.7  oxide  of  iron,  and 
Hccpfner  obtained  magnesia  39.47. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  of  a  darker  green  than  talc, 
or  epidote.  Nacrite  is  easily  fusible,  and  potstone  is  of  a  more 
compact  texture. 

Localities.  St.  Gothard,  England,  Scotland,  Saxony,  &c. 
It  is  a  common  mineral. 

U.  S.  Harper's  Ferry,  Va.  Chester  County,  Penn.  Rye, 
N.  Y.  containing  long  and  slender  crystals  of  schorl.  New- 
Haven,  Brookfield,  and  Saybrook,  Conn.  At  the  latter  place, 
in^small  crystals. — Porter.  Charlestown,  Brighton,  Bridge- 
water,  and  West  Stockbridge,  Mass.  Topsham,  Maine, 

Variety  3.     CHLORITE  SLATE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  blackish  green,  or 
greenish  gray ;  structure  slaty,  or  foliated ;  layers  often  curved  ; 
opake;  occurs  massive;  appears  on  inspection  to  be  composed 
of  minute  scales;  lustre  glistening;  easily  cut  with  a  knife; 
slightly  unctuous  to  the  touch. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  mica  slate,  it  is  known  by  its 
unctuosky  and  colour,  and  from  argilliteand  greenstone  slate, 
by  its  softness,  as  well  as  the  above  named  qualities.  Talc 
and  soapstone  are  more  unctuous  to  the  touch  than  chlorite. 

This  variety  is  found  in  beds,  in  primitive  mountains,  and 
often  contains  crystals  of  mica,  magnetic  iron,  garnets,  &c. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Williarnstown,  Mass,  also  at  Westfield, 
containing  crystals  of  mica. — Dewey.  Near  New-Haven, 
and  West-Haven,  Conn,  the  latter  abounding  with  magnetic 
iron. — Silliman. 

Variety  4.     GREEN  EARTH. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  of  various  shades, 
sometimes  bluish  or  grayish  green ;  occurs  in  small  amor- 


How  is  chlorite  slate  distinguished  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles  7 
-What  are  the  varieties  of  chlorite? 
19 


218 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


phous  masses  ;  or  lining-  the  cavities  of  amygdaloid  or  porphy- 
ry ;  fracture  earthy ;  yields  to  the  nail ;  adheres  to  the  tongue ; 
slightly  unctuous :  sp.  gr.  about  2.5. 

Chemical  characters.    Fusible  into  a  brownish  black  slag. 

Composition.  (From  Verona.)  Silex  53  ;  magnesia  2 ;  pot- 
ash 10  ;  oxide  of  iron  28  ;  water  6. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  forming  beds.  Mount  Pazza,  where 
it  occurs  in  pseudo-morphous  crystals  of  the  form  of  augite. 
Near  Verona,  where  it  has  been  long  explored. 

U.  S.  Near  Imlaytown,  in  Paterson,  N.  J.  On  the  Hud- 
son, N.  Y.  Near  Boston,  and  at  Deerfield,  Mass,  in  amyg- 
daloid. 

Uses.  Green  earth  is  used,  both  raw  as  a  green  colour,  and 
burnt  as  a  reddish-brown  colour,  for  painting  houses,  &c. — 
Mohs. 

Species  15.     TOURMALINE.     SCHORL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greeen,  blue,  yellow,  black 
and  white;  occurs  in  crystals  and  crystalline  masses;  form, 
six,  nine,  or  twelve-sided  prisms,  or  six-sided  prisms  so  trun 
cated  as  to  appear  under  six,  nine,  twelve,  or  even  twenty-four 
faces.  The  terminations  are  various,  and  commonly  differ  in 
the  number  and  size  of  the  faces  at  the  two  ends;  crystals  long, 
striated,  and  complete,  or  aggregated  into  irregular  masses, 
their  terminations  not  being  obvious ;  translucent  or  opake , 
scratches  glass  ;  electric  when  heated ;  the  end  having  the 
greatest  number  of  faces  being  positive;  the  other  negative, 
sp.  gr.  about  3. 
Fig.  136. 


Fig.  136.  A  nine-sided  prism,  obtusely  terminated 
by  five  planes.  Only  four  of  the  sides  and  two  of 
the  planes  are  obvious  to  the  figure. 


Fig.  137. 


Fig.  137.  A  three-sided  prism,  truncated  on  its 
lateral  edges  so  as  to  present  nine  unequal  sides, 
and  terminated  by  three  principal  faces,  to  which  a 
fourth  is  added  by  the  truncation  of  one  of  the  solid 
angles. 


What  are  the  uses  of  green  earth  7— What  are  the  colours  of  tourmaline  7 


MINERALOGV.  219 

Variety  1.     BLACK  TOURMALINE.     COMMON  SCHORL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  velvet  black,  or  bro\vnish 
clack  ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  crystallized,  in  three, 
six,  or  nine-sided  prisms,  variously  bevelled  or  truncated,  and 
obtusely  terminated  by  an  uncertain  number  of  planes  ;  crystal 
striated;  opake;  lustre  shining,  or  nearly  glistening;  brittle: 
sp.  gr.  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ease  into  a  brownish 
slag.  With  borax,  it  is  singular  that  so  deep  a  coloured  min- 
eral should  form  a  nearly  colourless  and  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  38;  alumine  34;  magnesia  1  ;  potash 
6;  oxide  of  iron  21  ;  manganese,  a  trace. — Klaproth. 

Schorl  is  a  very  common  mineral,  but  it  never  occurs  in 
such  quantities  as  to  form  the  principal -part  of  rocks.  It  is 
disseminated  in  crystals,  and  in  small  masses,  in  primitive 
rocks,  as  granite,  and  quartz. 

The  crystals,  though  described  as  six,  nine,  or  twelve-sided 
prisms,  are  commonly  triangular,  having  three  principal  sides, 
which  on  inspection  will  be  found  to  contain  several  plane 
faces  each. 

Black  tourmaline  is  often  a  very  beautiful  mineral.  The 
crystals  are  of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  a  small  needle,  to  several 
inches  in  diameter.  These  are  often  long,  straight,  and  per- 
fect, and  when  occurring  in  milk-white  quartz,  produce  a  very 
handsome  effect,  by  the  contrast  of  colour. 

Distinctive  characters.  Schorl  resembles  hornblende ;  but 
schorl  has  a  vitreous  lustre,  a  conchoidal  or  uneven  fracture, 
and  is  electric  by  heat.  Hornblende  has  a  splintery  fracture, 
a  laminated  structure,  is  softer  than  schorl,  and  is  non-electric. 

Schorl  is  found  chiefly  in  granite  and  quartz,  sometimes  in 
gneiss  and  mica  slate. 

Localities.  Schorlaw,  in  Saxony,  where  it  was  first  found, 
and  hence  its  name.  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Switzerland,  Spain, 
Hungary,  &c. 

U.~S.  Grafton,  Brattleborough,  and  Stafford,  Vt.  Near 
Baltimore,  Md.  crystals  sometimes  more  than  three  inches  in 
circumference. — Gilmor.  Rhinebeck  and  Kinsfsbridge,  N.  Y. 
Haddam  and  Litchfield,  Conn.  Hallowell,  Litchfield,  Bow- 
doin,  Maine.  Chesterfield,  and  Goshen,  Mass.  Munroe, 
and  Haddam,  Conn,  in  fine  perfect  crystals,  of  a  dark  yellow- 
ish brown  colour. 


What  are  the  forms  of  its  crystals? — What  are  the  chemical  characters 
of  tourmaline  ? — What  is  said  of  the  electrical  properties  of  tourmaline  ?- 
What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  tourmaline  ? 


220  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  2.     GREEN  TOURMALINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  bluish  green,  passing  into 
dark  leek-green ;  occurs  under  the  forms  above  described ; 
translucent  or  opake;  electric  by  heat. 

localities.  Ceylon,  Brazil,  St.  Gotbard,  in  Switzerland, 
and  in  Sweden. 

U.  S.  Chesterfield,  Mass,  in  a  vein  of  quartz  and  felspar, 
traversing  granite.  The  green  tourmaline  often  encloses  a 
prism  Ox'  rose-coloured  rubellite,  running  through  its  axis.  The 
crystals  of  tourmaline  are  sometimes  four  inches  long.  The 
same  granite  contains  the  blue  tourmaline  and  emerald. — 
Gibbs.  Also  at  Paris,  in  Maine. 

Variety  3.     YELLOW  TOURMALINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  honey,  or  orange  yellow; 
translucent  or  transparent;  other  characters  common  to  the 
species. 

Localities.      Ceylon. 

U.  S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  in  primitive  limestone.  Chester 
County,  Penn.  in  transparent  crystals  with  oxide  of  titanium. 
Dalton,  Mass,  colour  straw  yellow,  and  from  one  to  two  inches 
long. 

Variety  4.     INDICOLITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  indigo  blue,  often  very  dark  ; 
occurs  crystallized  in  the  form  of  the  species,  but  commonly 
less  perfectly. 

Localities.     Utoe,  in  Sweden,  of  an  indeterminate  form. 

U.  S.  Harlem  Heights,  N.  Y.  Goshen  and  Chesterfield, 
Mass,  crystals  often  of  so  deep  a  colour  as  to  appear  black. 
Bellows  Falls,  Vt.  in  primitive  rocks.  Hinsdale,  N.  H.  in 
large  crystals. — Silliman. 

Variety  5.     WHITE  TOURMALINE. 

Localities.  This  rare  variety  occurs  at  St.  Gothard,  Elba, 
and  Siberia. 

U.  S.     Paris,  Maine. 

Variety  6.     RUBELLITE.J     RED  TOURMALINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  pink,  crimson,  violet, 
or  rose  red;  occurs  under  the  same  forms  as  the  species; 

*  From  its  colour,  being  that  of  indigo, 
t  From  its  being  of  a  ruby  red  colour. 


What  is  said  of  the  green  tourmaline  of  Chesterfield  ?— Where  is  yellow 
tourmaline  found  ? — What  is  indicolite  1 — What  is  the  colour  of  rubellite? 


MINERALOGY.  221 

crystals  not  often  distinct,  being  closely  aggregated  into  groups, 
or  variously  crossing  ami.  intersecting  each  other;  translucent 
or  transparent;  harder  than  the  other  varieties. 

Chemical  characters.  Splits,  intumesces,  turns  white,  does 
not  fuse,  but  vitrifies  on  the  edges  ;  with  borax  affords  a  trans- 
parent glass. 

Composition.  Silex  42  ;  alumine  40;  soda  10;  oxide  of 
manganese  and  iron  7. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  fine  colour  and  its  form  will  dis- 
tinguish it  from  all  other  minerals  of  this  species. 

Localities.  Ceylon,  with  lepidolite.  Moravia,  Uralian 
mountains,  Ava,  and  Sweden. 

U.  S.  Chesterfield,  Mass,  in  red  crystals,  often  surrounded 
or  embraced  by  crystals  of  green  tourmaline ;  also  in  Goshen, 
Mass,  with  lepidolite,  or  rose-red  mica.  Kingsb ridge,  15 
miles  from  the  city  of  New  York.  Paris,  Maine. 

It  is  sometimes  cut  and  polished,  and  worn  as  a  jewel,  but 
is  not  highly  esteemed. 

Fine  specimens  of  rubellite,  on  account  of  their  variety  and 
beauty,  sometimes  sell  at  great  prices.  Thus  Jameson  saw  a 
three-sided  prism  of  rubellite,  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  at  Dres- 
den, which  cost  400  rubles,  and  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Gre- 
ville,  which  he  sold  to  the  British  government,  there  was  a 
specimen  of  the  same  mineral  valued  at  1000/.  sterling. 

Species  16.     SOMMITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  greenish  white ; 
occurs  in  small  crystals  and  crystalline  grains;  form  a  regu- 
lar six-sided  prism,  with  the  lateral  edges  and  terminal  angles 
often  replaced  ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  prism ; 
cross  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining,  vitreous ;  scratches 
glass:  sp.  gr.  about  3.2. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  blebby  colourless  glass. 
Renders  nitrous  acid  cloudy,  when  immersed  in  it. 

Composition.  Silex  44.11;  alumine  33.73;  soda  20.46; 
loss  0.62. — Arfwedson. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  phosphate  of  lime,  but 
is  harder,  and  does  not  phosphoresce  on  hot  coals. 

Localities.  Mount  Somma,  near  Vesuvius,  with  mica  and 
idocrase.  Near  Rome,  in  lava. 

*  From  its  occurring  at  Monte  Somma. 

What  is  the  composition  of  rubellite  ? — What  is  said  of  the  prices  of  some 
rubellites  ?— Whence  comes  the  name  of  sommite? 
19* 


222  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  17.     ANALCIME.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  gray,  yellowish,  or 
deep  red ;  occurs  crystallized  in  cubes,  either  perfect,  or  ha- 
ving its  solid  angles  replaced  by  three  planes ;  also  in  twenty- 
four-sided  crystals,  the  faces  of  which  present  trapezoidal 
figures,  like  those  bounding  the  sides  of  the  garnet;  scratches 
glass ;  transparent,  or  translucent,  and  sometimes  opake  ; 
crystals  often  implanted  and  grouped ;  lustre  shining  and 
pearly ;  by  friction  acquires  a  weak  electricity :  sp.  gr.  about 
2.25. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  without  intumescence  into 
a  diaphanous  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  58 ;  alumine  18;  lime  2;  soda  10; 
water  8.5. —  Vauquclin. 

Distinctive  characters.  Leucite,  which  it  resembles,  com- 
monly occurs  in  distinct  crystals,  or  small  masses,  and  never 
in  implanted  groups  like  the  present  species ;  leucite  is  also 
infusible.  The  garnet,  which  the  red  variety  resembles,  is 
much  harder  and  heavier.  Fluor-spar  melts  into  a  white 
globule,  carbonate  of  lime  effervesces,  and  from  stilbite  and 
zeolite  it  differs  in  crystalline  form. 

It  occurs  in  primitive  rocks,  and  in  trap,  and  in  lava. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  in  the  Hartz,  Iceland,  Faroe  Islands, 
near  Edinburgh,  and  in  several  other  parts  of  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, &c. 

U.  S.  Paterson,  N.  J.  in  greenstone.  East-Haven,  Conn, 
with  agates  and  chalcedony.  Deerfield,  Mass,  in  greenstone. 

Species  23.     PITCHSTONE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  blue,  green,  yellow, 
red,  brown,  and  black,  of  various  shades,  but  always  dull; 
occurs  massive,  and  in  prismatic  concretions ;  structure  slaty, 
sometimes  curved;  lustre,  resino-vitreous ;  fracture  imper- 
fectly conchoidal;  opake  or  translucent;  scratches  glass:  sp. 
gr.  from  2.32  to  2.64. 

Chemical  characters.  Some  few  varieties  are  infusible, 
others  melt  into  an  enamel,  the  colour  of  which  depends  on 
that  of  the  specimen. 

*  From  the  Greek,  in  allusion  to  its  weak  electric  powers. 


What  are  the  colours  of  analcime  7—  What  minerals  does  analcime  most 
resemble,  and  how  is  it  distinguished  from  them7? — What  are  the  colours 
of  pitchstone? 


MINERALOGY.  223 

Composition.  Silex  73;  alumine  14.5  ;  lime  1 ;  soda  1.75; 
oxide  of  iron  1 ;  oxide  of  manganese  O.I ;  water  8.5. — Klap- 
roth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  imperfectly  conchoidal  fracture 
will  distinguish  it  from  obsidian,  which  also  has  a  more  vitre- 
ous lustre  than  pitchstone.  Its  fusibility  will  distinguish  it 
from  flint,  jasper,  semi-opal,  and  hornstone. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  countries,  also  in  trap  rocks,  in  lava, 
and  in  formations  of  doubtful  origin.  Though  generally  found 
in  veins  and  small  masses,  it  sometimes  forms  whole  moun- 
tains, as  Kirvvan  states  to  be  the  case  in  Misnia;  Pinkerton 
states  the  same  fact  in  regard  to  certain  mountains  in  Germa- 
ny and  New-Spain. 

Localities.  Cairngorm  in  Scotland.  Germany,  in  many 
places.  Ireland,  near  Dublin.  Mexico,  TenerifFe,  &c. 

U.  S.     Bare  Hills,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  in  serpentine. 

Pinkerton  mentions  a  pitchstone  porphyry  which  occurs  at 
Auvergne,  in  France.  The  base  is  dark  bottle-green,  with 
lighter  green  crystals  of  felspar.  In  a  specimen  of  this  kind 
before  me,  the  crystals  of  felspar  often  cross  each  other,  or  are 
set  in  the  form  of  stars,  and  being  of  a  light  apple-green,  con- 
trasted with  the  dark  ground,  forms  a  beautiful  mineral. 

Species  18.     LAVA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish,  or  greenish  gray, 
grayish  black,  or  greenish  black,  sometimes  sulphur  yellow, 
and  often  spotted  with  red  5  occurs  massive,  with  internal 
marks  of  fusion,  being  vesicular,  or  porous,  the  vesicles  being 
empty;  fracture  more  or  less  conchoidal,  or  fibrous;  lustre 
glistening  or  shining;  opake,  or  feebly  translucent  on  the 
edges ;  also  compact,  with  a  dull  earthy  fracture,  and  often 
containing  crystals  of  felspar,  leucite,  hornblende,  &c. ;  brit- 
tle ;  often  attracts  the  magnet. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  dark-coloured  glass. 

Composition.  (Compact  lava.)  Silex  51 ;  alumine  19  ;  lime 
10;  soda  4;  iron  14;  water  1. — Phillips. 

Distinctive  characters.  Lava  is  heavier  than  pumice,  and 
does  not  possess  its  fibrous  aspect,  nor  its  silky  lustre. 

It  is  found  in  volcanic  countries  only,  and  is  the  product  of 
the  action  of  volcanic  fire  on  earthy  minerals. 

Localities.  Etna,  Vesuvius,  Hecla,  and  most  other  volca- 
noes. 

How  is  pitchstone  distinguished  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles  1 
What  are  the  colours  of  lava? — How  is  lava  distinguished  from  pumice  7 


221  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Werner  and  Jameson  notice  t\vo  kinds  of  lava,  slag  iavai 
and  foam  lava.  Hauy  enumerates  six  species,  and  Karsten 
nine.  Many  mineralogists,  however,  believe  that  some  sub- 
stances formerly  included  among  the  lavas,  are  not  volcanic 
products,  and  consequently  not  true  lavas. 

Lava  frequently  includes  crystals  and  other  substances 
which  are  easily  fusible,  but  which  in  appearance  have  not 
been  altered  by  the  fire;  such  are  felspar  and  hornblende. 
On  this  account  some  mineralogists  have  doubted  its  volcanic 


The  above  description  is  intended  to  embrace  only  such 
substances  as  are  undoubted  lavas. 

Species  19.     PUMICE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  or  yellowish  brown, 
or  light  smoke  gray  ;  occurs  massive;  structure  fibrous;  tex- 
ture extremely  porous:  pores  round,  or  elongated;  lustre 
shining,  pearly;  very  brittle;  opake,  or  translucent  on  the 
edges;  scratches  glass  and  steel;  fracture  fibrous,  or  imper- 
fectly conchoidal  ;  yields  to  the  knife  :  sp.  gr.  1.4,  but  is  some- 
times so  light  as  to  swim  on  water. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  yellowish  green  glass 
full  of  bubbles. 

Composition.  Silex  77.5;  alumine  17.5;  oxide  of  iron 
1.75  ;  potash  and  soda  3.  —  Klaproth. 

Pumice  is  generally  considered  a  volcanic  product,  though 
some  geologists  consider  it  an  aqueous  deposite.  That  it  is 
sometimes  of  volcanic  origin,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt,  as  in 
some  cases  of  submarine  volcanoes,  pumice  has  been  formed, 
and  floated  on  shore  ;  but  all  volcanoes  do  not  seem  to  pro- 
duce it,  as  it  is  but  sparingly  found  at  Vesuvius,  and  not  at  all 
at  Etna. 

Pumice  often  contains  crystals  of  hornblende,  felspar,  quartz, 
mica,  &c. 

Localities.  Auvergne,  in  France.  Iceland,  TenerifFe,  Li- 
pari,  Hungary,  &c. 

The  pumice  of  commerce  comes  chiefly  from  Lipari. 

Uses.  It  is  used  under  the  name  of  pumice  stone,  for  scour- 
ing brass,  polishing  certain  metals  and  glass,  and  by  cabinet 
makers  for  smoothing  wood  and  varnish.  In  the  countries 
where  it  is  found,  it  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  building 
stone. 

What  is  the  origin  of  lava?  —  What  are  the  colours  of  pumice?  —  What  is 
the  origin  of  pumice  ?  —  W7hat  is  the  use  of  pumice  1 


MINERALOGY.  226 

Species  20.     BASALT*. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  black,  brownish 
gray,  or  bluish  black  ;  occurs  in  large  amorphous  masses,  or 
in  globular,  columnar,  or  tabular  forms;  fracture  splintery, 
or  coarse-grained,  uneven ;  sometimes  conchoidal ;  lustre 
feebly  glimmering,  or  dull;  opake;  streak,  ash  gray;  often 
porous,  or  vesicular ;  cavities  sometimes  of  considerable  size, 
of  a  flat,  oblong,  or  round  shape  ;  often,  also,  porphyritic :  sp. 
gr.  from  2.8  to  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  an  opake  black  glass. 
With,  borax  it  slowly  dissolves  into  a  greenish  transparent 
glass. 

Composition.  (From  Saxony.)  Silex  44.5 ;  alumine  16.75; 
lime  9.5:  magnesia  2.25;  soda  2.6;  oxide  of  iron  20;  oxide 
of  manganese  0.12;  water  2. — Phillips. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  of  a  darker  colour,  and  wants 
the  greenish  tinge  of  greenstone.  And  from  indurated  clay 
and  argillite,  it  may  generally  be  known  from  the  difference 
of  lustre  and  fracture,  as  well  as  from  the  vesicles  and  im- 
bedded minerals  which  it  contains. 

Basalt  is  often  porphyritic,  containing  imbedded  crystals, 
as  hornblende,  olivine,  felspar,  quartz,  mica,  analcime,  clay, 
&c.  Sometimes  its  cavities  are  lined  with  incrustations  of 
lime,  steatite,  and  zeolite. 

It  frequently  attracts  the  magnet,  and  is  subject  to  decom- 
position, in  consequence  of  the  quantity  of  iron  it  contains. 

Variety  1.     COLUMNAR  BASALT. 

It  occurs  in  columns  of  a  prismatic  form,  having  from  three 
to  nine  plane  sides  or  faces,  but  more  commonly  only  five  or 
six.  These  columns  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  few  inches  to 
several  feet  in  diameter,  and  sometimes  nearly  a  hundred  feet 
high,  occasionally  straight,  but  oftener  curved.  The  columns 
are  jointed,  or  composed  of  many  pieces  of  the  same  shape 
and  dimensions,  lying  one  on  the  other.* 

Locality.     Giant's  Causeway,  north  of  Ireland. 

Variety  2.     GLOBULAR  BASALT. 

External  characters.  This  variety  occurs  in  tabular  mass- 
es, from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  diameter.  They  are 

*  See  Bakewell's  Geology. 

What  are  the  colours  of  basalt  7— What  are  the  chemical  characters  of 
basalt? 


226  INTRODUCTION  TO 

composed  of  concentric  spheres,  or  layers,  one  without  the 
other,  forming  globes,  which  are  filled  with  lesser  globes,  gra- 
dually diminishing  in  size  to  the  centre.  These  spheres  are 
cross-cracked,  so  as  to  give  the  mass  a  radiated  structure. 

Sometimes,  says  Mr.  Bakewell,  in  his  geology,  these  spheres 
appear  compressed  against  each  other,  so  as  to  flatten  their 
sides.  At  the  centre  they  often  contain  a  fragment  of  com- 
pact basalt,  or  some  other  substance,  as  a  piece  of  shell  lime- 
stone, as  a  nucleus. 

Basalt  is  undoubtedly  a  secondary  rock,  but  mineralogists 
disagree  as  to  the  mode  of  its  formation.  Some  contend  that 
nothing  but  fusion  could  have  produced  the  crystalline  form, 
and  the  vesicular  structure  of  this  rock  ;  while  others  see  no 
difficulty  in  accounting  for  these  and  other  peculiarities,  on 
the  supposition  of  its  aqueous  origin,  and  contend  that  basalt 
is  a  deposite  from  water. 

Notwithstanding  the  strong  marks  of  fire  which  basalt  seems 
to  bear,  there  are  many  circumstances  which  discountenance 
its  volcanic  origin.  It  often  contains  substances  apparently 
unaltered,  which  are  easily  fusible,  as  hornblende,  felspar,  ana1 
clay.  It  also  embraces  organic  remains,  both  of  animals  and 
vegetables,  and  sometimes  rests  on  coal,  or  bituminous  wood, 
without  leaving  any  marks  of  fire  on  these  substances.  An- 
other strong  argument  against  its  volcanic  origin  is,  that  it  fre- 
quently alternates  with  limestone,  and  sandstone. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  most  probable  that  some  basalts  have 
originated  from  fire,  and  others  from  water.  According  to 
Phillips,  the  basalt  of  Germany  is  believed,  by  most  geologists, 
to  be  of  Neptunian  or  aqueous  origin,  while  that  of  France  is 
universally  acknowledged  to  be  volcanic. 

Probably  the  most  remarkable  locality  of  this  rock  existing, 
is  that  called  the  Giant's  Causeway,  in  the  north  of  Ireland. 
At  this  place,  a  vast  number  of  basaltic  columns  stand  side  by 
side,  forming  the  walls  of  a  gap,  from  the  sea  into  the  side  of 
the  mountain.  The  area  of  this  gap  is  about  600  feet  long 
by  30  wide.  The  columns  are  mostly  straight,  and  about  40 
feet  high. 

Another  very  interesting  locality  of  this  mineral  is  at  Cader 
Idris,  in  North  Wales,  where  a  vast  number  of  these  columns 
are  lying  in  confusion  on  each  other,  as  though  they  had  been 


What  is  the  form  and  appearance  of  globular  basalt? — What  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  origin  of  basalt  ? — Where  is  the  most  remarkable  locality 
of  basalt  ? 


MINERALOGY.  227 

ihiown  down  by  some  terrible  convulsion.      Bakewell  has 
gi^en  a  drawing  of  this  scene. 

Species  2J.     JADE.     NEPHRITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  mountain  green,  passing  into 
dark  grass-green,  sometimes  light  sea-green;  occurs  massive, 
and  in  rolled  pebbles ;  fracture  splintery ;  lustre  glimmering, 
and  greasy,  when  polished ;  translucent,  sometimes  only  on 
the  edges;  unctuous  to  the  touch;  strongly  coherent,  and 
very  difficult  to  break ;  scratches  glass ;  structure  compact ; 
cleavage,  none. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  into  a  greenish  glass. 

The  descriptions  of  this  mineral  by  different  authors,  are 
quite  discordant.  Kirwan  says,  jade  is  infusible  by  the  strong- 
est heat  of  a  furnace.  Hauy  and  Cleveland  say,  it  is  easily 
fusible  by  the  blow  pipe.  Aiken  says,  that  it  yields  to  the 
knife.  Phillips,  that  it  scratches  quartz,  &c. 

In  respect  to  composition,  Kirwan  gives,  silex  47;  magne- 
sia 33 ;  clay  4;  lime  2  ;  iron  9. 

Saussure,  silex  57.75 ;  lime  12.75;  alumine  1.5;  oxide  of 
iron  5;  oxide  of  manganese  2;  soda  10.75;  potash  8.5; 
water  2.25. 

These  characters  and  compositions  are  so  widely  different, 
as  to  render  it  impossible  that  they  should  belong  to  the  same 
species.  It  is  most  probable,  therefore,  that  the  same  name 
has  been  applied  to  minerals  of  entirely  distinct  species. 

The  above  specific  description,  applies  to  what  the  writer 
has  considered  undoubted  specimens  of  jade. 

Uses.  Its  great  tenacity,  observes  Jameson,  enables  the 
artist  to  execute  on  it  beautifully  delicate  figures  without  the 
risk  of  breaking.  The  Turks  cut  it  into  handles  for  sabres 
and  daggers,  which  they  prize  highly.  It  is  said  even  to  have 
been  wrought  into  chains. 

A  handsome  sky  blue  variety  occurs  at  Smithfield,  R.  I. 

Species  22.     SAUSSURITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  deep  green,  greenish  gray, 
or  greenish  white;  occurs  amorphous  and  in  rolled  masses; 
scratches  quartz ;  translucent  on  the  edges  ;  extremely  tena- 
cious ;  texture  compact ;  fracture  splintery ;  a  little  unctuous  to 
the  touch. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  before  the  blow  pipe  into  a 
greenish  glass. 

What  are  the  colours  of  jade  1 — What  are  the  peculiarities  of  jade  1- 
What  are  the  uses  of  jade  7 


223  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Distinctive  characters. ,  Jade  may  be  known  from  serpen- 
tine by  its  toughness  and  greasy  aspect ;  from  jasper,  pitch- 
stone,  hornblende,  and  com  pact  felspar,  by  its  want  of  conchoi- 
dal  fracture,  by  its  great  tenacity,  and  oily  appearance. 

Localities.  Jade,  or  nephrite,  is  found  in  China,  the  East 
Indies,  Moravia,  Tyrol,  Switzerland,  Austria,  &c. 

U.  S.     Ten  miles  from  Philadelphia.     Smithfield,  R.  1. 

This  stone  was  formerly  considered  a  remedy  for  nephritic 
complaints  when  worn,  and  hence  the  name  of  nephrite. 

Uses.  Its  great  tenacity  enables  the  artist  to  execute  on  it 
beautifully  delicate  figures.  The  Turks  cut  it  into  handles 
for  sabres  and  daggers,  which  they  prize  highly.  It  is  said 
even  to  have  been  wrought  into  chains. 

Species  23.     CIIABASIE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white, 
grayish,  or  pale  red ;  occurs  in  crystals  only ;  form,  an  obtuse 
rhomboid,  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  a  cube,  its  alter- 
nate angles  being  94°  and  86° ;  subject  to  various  modifica- 
tions ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  rhomboid ; 
scarcely  scratches  glass;  translucent  or  transparent;  structure 
lamellar ;  crystals  often  implanted,  or  set  on  other  minerals  ; 
lustre  vitreous:  sp.  gr.  2.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  slight  swelling,  into  a 
white  spongy  mass.  Acids  do  not  act  on  it. 

Composition.  Silex  43.33 ;  alumine  22.66;  soda  and  pot- 
ash 9.34;  water  21 ;  lime  3.34. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  carbonate  of  lime  and  zeolite, 
it  differs  in  resisting  the  action  of  acids ;  fluor-spar,  which  it 
also  resembles,  is  acted  on  by  acids,  phosphoresces  when 
heated,  and  decrepitates,  neither  of  which  characters  belongs 
to  chabasie. 

It  is  found  chiefly  in  amygdaloid,  basalt,  and  greenstone. 

Localities.  Oberstein,  in  Germany.  Fassa.  Island  of 
Sky.  The  finest  specimens  come  from  the  three  first  named 
places. 

U.  S.     Deerfield,  Mass,  in  greenstone,  and  balls  of  zeolite. 
—  Hitchcock.     Chester,  Mass.  '  Hadlyme,  Conn. 
Species  22.     LEPIDOLITE.J 

External  characters.     Colours,  lilac-red,  rose-red,  or  pearl- 

*From  the  Greek,  signifying  a  particular  species  of  stone, 
f  From  the  Greek,  signifying  a  scaly  stone. 

VVhat  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  chabasie? — In  what  rocks  is  cha- 
basie found? — What  are  the  colours  of  lepidolite  ? 


MINERALOGY.  229 

gray;  occurs  massive,  presenting  an  aggregate  of  minute, 
shining,  flexible  scales,  or  hexagonal  plates,  fracture  fine- 
grained, splintery ;  lustre,  glistening  and  pearly  ;  yields  to  the 
knife  with  ease ;  in  powder,  unctuous  to  the  touch :  sp.  gr. 
2.8. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ease  into  a  transparent 
globule,  at  the  same  time,  says  Aiken,  tinging  the  flame  pur- 
plish-red. 

Composition  Silex  54;  alumine  20.61;  potash  9.6  ;  oxide 
of  manganese  0.5;  lime  16;  water  1.86. —  Vauquelin. 

Another  variety  yielded,  says  Prof.  Gmelin,  silex  52.254 ; 
alumine  28.345 ;  oxide  of  manganese  3.602;  potash  6.903; 
lithion  4.792 ;  fluoric  acid  3.609. 

Prof.  Gmelin,  before  the  analysis,  supposed  this  mineral  to 
have  been  mica,  crystallized  in  large  laminae. — Silliman's 
Journal. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  appearance  much  resembles  an 
aggregation  of  small  scales  of  mica,  but  mica  melts  into  a 
grayish,  or  black  enamel,  and  is  not  unctuous  to  the  touch. 

Lepidolite  is  often  a  very  handsome  mineral.  Its  colour, 
approaching  to  that  of  peach  blossom,  in  some  instances,  is  re- 
markably soft  and  pleasant  to  the  eye,  while  its  scales  are  so 
disposed  as  to  give  it  a  glittering  and  brilliant  lustre  in  what- 
ever direction  it  is  held. 

Uses.  It  is  cut  into  snuff-boxes,  and  various  other  orna- 
ments. 

Species  24.     PETALLITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  greenish, 
or  reddish,  and  sometimes  white;  occurs  massive;  structure 
foliated;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  a  four-sided  prism; 
lammse  sometimes  undulated,  or  scaly;  lustre  glistening,  and 
sometimes  pearly ;  rather  brittle ;  scratches  glass  :  sp.  gr.  about 
2.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fuses  with  difficulty  into  a  porous 
translucent  glass  ;  sometimes  it  does  not  melt,  the  surface  only 
becoming  glazed ;  with  borax  fuses  into  a  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  80;  alumine  15;  lithia  1.75;  manga- 
nese 2.50  ;  water  0.25. — Clarke. 

It  sometimes  resembles  quartz;  but  is  easily  known  from  it 
by  the  foregoing  characters. 

Is  lepidolite  fusible,  or  infusible?— What  does  lepidolite  most  resemblel 
What  use  is  made  of  lepidolite  ? 
20 


230  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Localities.  Utoe,  and  Sahla,  in  Sweden,  associated  with 
quartz,  and  felspar. 

U.  S.  Bolton,  Mass,  in  a  lime  quarry,  with  Nuttalite,  sea- 
polite,  and  pyroxene. 

Species  25.     SPODUMENE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  greenish-white; 
occurs  massive,  and  in  crystals;  structure  laminated;  clea- 
vage parallel  to  the  sides,  and  shorter  diagonal  of  a  rhombic 
prism  ;  lustre  shining,  and  somewhat  pearly ;  translucent ; 
scratches  glass ;  cross  fracture  uneven  and  splintery :  sp.  gr. 
3.19. 

Chemical  characters.  Exfoliates  a  little,  and  then  melts  into 
a  nearly  limpid  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  64.4;  alumine  24.4;  potash  5  ;  lime 
3;  oxide  of  iron  2.2. —  Vaugueli?i. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  adularia,  which  it  most  re- 
sembles, it  differs  in  the  shape  of  its  rhomboidal  fragments, 
and  in  not  emitting  the  peculiar  moon-stone  reflections.  It 
is  harder  than  carbonate  of  lime.  Zoisite  is  commonly  of  a 
darker  colour,  and  melts  into  a  porous  glass.  It  is  harder 
than  ichthyophthalmite,  which  separates  into  flakes  in  nitric 
acid. 

Localities.  Utoe,  in  Sweden,  in  a  matrix  of  red  felspar, 
quartz,  and  mica.  Tyrol,  in  granite  rock. 

U.  S.  Goshen,  Chester,  Conway,  Lancaster,  and  Sterling, 
Mass.  At  Goshen,  it  is  abundant. — Robinsoji.  At  Sterling, 
it  fills  the  place  of  felspar  in  a  granite  rock. — Silliman. 

Species  25.     CLEVELANDITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish  white,  bluish, 
and  reddish,  or  red;  occurs  massive,  and  crystallized  in  rhom- 
bic tabular  crystals,  of  which  the  lateral  edges  are  sometimes 
truncated  ;  crystals  often  aggregated,  so  as  to  present  stellular 
groups;  structure  laminated  ;  cleavage  perfect  in  two  direc- 
tions; texture  of  the  massive,  approaching  fibrous,  being  com- 
posed of  slender  crystals,  diverging  in  rows  from  straight  or 
curved  lines,  and  producing  a  feathery  aspect ;  translucent  or 
semi-transparent;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.50. 

According  to  Phillips,  some  specimens  afford  distinct  clea- 
vage parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  a  doubly  oblique  prism,  yield- 

*  In  honour  of  Prof.  Cleveland)  of  Bowdoin  University. 

What  are  the  colours  of  spodumene?— How  does  spodumene  differ  from 
adularia  ?— What  are  the  colours  of  clevelandite  ? 


MINERALOGY.  231 

ing  to  the  reflective  goniometer,  in  one  direction,  ajternate  an- 
gles of  93°  30',  and  86°  30',  in  another  direction,  119°  30', 
and  60°  30',  and  in  another  of  115°  65'. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  white  translucent 
glass. 

Composition.  Silex  70.7  ;  alumine  19.8;  soda  9.0;  lime 
0.2  ;  oxide  of  manganese  0.1. — Stromeyer. 

Mr.  Levy,  (Ann.  Philo.)  has  examined  Clevelandite  with 
much  attention.  Its  primitive  form,  he  finds,  as  the  result  of 
various  observations,  to  differ  from  that  of  felspar. 

The  primitive  of  the  present  species  is  a  doubly  oblique,  prism. 
while  that  of  felspar  is  an  oblique  rhombic  prism.  These  forms 
are  incompatible,  notwithstanding  their  great  analogy.  The 
t\vo  species  very  nearly  resemble  each  other,  in  every  respect, 
and  often  occur  in  the  same  specimen.  Clevelandite,  how- 
ever, Mr.  Levy  observes,  has  a  certain  brilliancy  which  does 
not  belong  to  felspar.  On  re-examination  of  many  specimens, 
heretofore  considered  felspar,  they  have  been  found  to  be 
Clevelandite,  either  entirely,_or  in  part.  Mr.  Levy,  indeed, 
considers  the  varieties  of  the  present  species,  to  be  at  least  as 
numerous  as  those  of  felspar. 

Localities.  Mr.  Turner,  of  Edinburgh,  from  whose  collec- 
tion Mr.  Levy  has  made  the  above  observations,  has  speci- 
mens from  Dauphiny,  St.  Gothard,  Tyrol,  Piedmont,  Baveno, 
Elba,  Vesuvius,  Saxony,  Sweden,  Norway,  Siberia,  Greenland, 
United  States,  and  South  America. 

U.  S.  Haddam,  Conn.  Chesterfield  and  Goshen,  Mass. 
At  Chesterfield,  it  contains  rubellite,  green  tourmaline,  and 
indicolite.  Middletovvn,  Conn.,  with  chrysoberyl  and  colum- 
bite, 

Species  26.     SILLIMANITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  gray,  inclining  to  clove 
brown  ;  occurs  crystallized  in  four-sided  rhomboidal  prisms, 
whose  alternate  angles  are  106°  30',  and  73°  70' ;  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  base  to  the  axis  of  the  prism  being  113°  ;  cleavage 
parallel  to  the  longer  diagonal  of  the  prism;  cross  fracture 
uneven,  splintery;  structure  lamellar  ;  lustre  of  the  cleavage, 
brilliant;  of  the  cross  fracture,  vitreous;  translucent  on  the 
edges;  angles  and  sides  of  the  crystals  often  rounded;  hard- 
ness greater  than  that  of  quartz;  sometimes  scratches  topaz; 
brittle,  and  reducible  to  powder:  sp.  gr.  3.41. 

*In  honour  of  Benjamin  Silliman,  LL.  D.  of  Connecticut. 
Where  is  Clevelandite  found  7 


232  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  even  with  borax.  Insolu- 
ble in  acids. 

Composition,  Alumine  54. 1  i  1 ;  silex  42.666 ;  oxide  of 
iron  1.999;  water  0.510. — Bowen. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  somewhat  resembles  zoisite,  but 
the  infusibility  and  great  hardness,  as  well  as  the  crystalline 
form,  and  especially  the  peculiar  cleavage  of  Sillimanite,  will 
distinguish  it  from  this,  and  perhaps  every  other  mineral. 

The  analysis  of  this  species,  and  the  quantity  of  several  of 
its  angles,  has  induced  Prof.  Mohs,  to  conclude  that  it  may  be 
a  variety  of  disthene-spar,  (cyanite.)  But  we  may  remark, 
that  minerals  composed  of  entirely  different  constituents,  are 
found  to  crystallize  under  nearly  the  same  angles,  and  that 
the  hardness  and  composition  of  Sillimanite,  indicate  a  distinct 
species.  The  varieties  of  cyanite  yield  to  the  knife,  Avhile  the 
present  species  scratches  quartz,  and  even  topaz.  Saussure 
and  Laugier,  both  found  cyanite  to  contain  lime.  Saussure 
found  also  2.30  of  magnesia.  Klaproth  found  the  same 
mineral  to  contain  a  little  potash,  neither  of  which  belong  to 
Sillimanite. 

Localities.  Chester,  Conn,  in  a  vein  of  quartz,  penetrating 
gneiss.  Humphreyville,  Conn.  Chester,  near  Philadelphia, 

CLASS  VI. 
NATIVE  METALS  AND  METALLIFEROUS  MINERALS. 

This  class  includes  the  native  metals,  together  with  the  ores, 
or  metals  combined  with  other  substances,  as  oxygen,  sulphur, 
or  acids. 

In  some  instances,  the  quantity  of  metal  does  not  amount  to 
more  than  one-third  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  ore,  with  which 
it  is  arranged,  the  remainder  being  cither  some  other  metallic 
substance,  or  clay,  sulphur,  or  silex,  &c. 

GENUS  i. — PLATINA. 

This  metal  is  found  in  its  native  state,  and  also  combined 
with  the  metals,  iridium,  palladium,  and  rhodium. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  PLATINA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  approaching  to 
silver  white ;  occurs  in  grains,  seldom  exceeding  the  size  of 

What  are  the  colours  and  chemical  characters  of  Sillimanite? — What 
are  the  distinctive  characters  of  Sillimanite  ? — Where  is  this  mineral  found  ? 
—What  substances  are  included  in  the  sixth  class? — What  are  the  states 
m  which  platina  is  found  ? 


MINERALOGY.  v  233 

a  pea;  hardness  nearly  equal  to  that  of  iron;  malleable,  and 
may,  like  iron,  be  welded;  structure  sometimes  lamellar  ;  bui 
more  often  not  obvious;  streak  unchanged:  sp.  gr.  17.  33. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  by  the  blow  pipe.  By  the 
compound  blow  pipe,  slowly  fusible.  Soluble  in  aqua  regia 
only.  Not  oxidated  by  exposure  to  the  air. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  geological  situation  of  this  metal, 
it  being  found  only  in  small  grains  in  alluvial  deposites. 

Localities.  South  America,  and  St.  Domingo,  out  chiefly 
in  the  former,  where  it  occurs  with  zircon,  iron  ore,  and  native 
gold. 

Native  platina  is  not  perfectly  pure,  but  is  mixed  with  the 
metals  palladium,  iridium,  and  rhodium,  together  with  a  little 
iron. 

In  a  single  instance,  a  mass  of  platina  has  been  found 
weighing  lib.  9oz.  Idr.  Its  diameter  is  about  two  inches,  and 
its  shape  nearly  round.  It  was  found  in  Choco,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  is  preserved  in  the  royal  museum  at  Madrid. — 
Phillips. 

Uses.  The  infusibility  of  this  metal,  and  its  insolubility  in 
most  of  the  acids,  renders  it  extremely  valuable  in  the  con- 
struction of  many  useful  instruments.  In  chemistry  it  is  used 
for  spoons,  forceps,  evaporating  dishes,  &c.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  philosophical  instruments,  for 
naval  uses ;  for  the  covering  of  other  metals  to  prevent  their 
rusting,  for  painting  porcelain  ware,  &c. 
GENUS  ii. — GOLD. 

Gold,  like  platina,  is  found  only  in  the  native  state,  though 
often  alloyed  with  other  metals. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  GOLD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  golden,  or  orange  yellow, 
passing  into  grayish  yellow  :  occurs  massive,  capillary,  amor- 
phous, dentritic  and  crystallized,  in  cubes,  and  octohedron? 
with  various  modifications:  fracture  hackly;  lustre  metallic; 
soft  and  malleable:  sp.  or.  14.85  to  19.25. 
Fig.  138. 


138.     The  octohedron. 


Wisr  are  tr-«  i'f?-;.s  of  platina  ?— In  what  state  is  goldfound  1— What  are 
the-cry.<taihnef  rinsci  native  gold. 
20* 


234  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Fig,  139. 


Fig-.  139.     The  same  with  the  edges  trunca- 
ted. 


Fig.  140. 

\ 

Fig.  140.     The  rhombic  dodecahedron. 


These  are  some  of  the  common  forms  under  which  crystal- 
lized gold  appears:  but  in  many  instances  the  crystals  are 
very  irregular,  and  their  geometrical  forms  difficult  to  deter- 
mine. The  crystals  are  generally  minute. 

Chemical  characters.  It  is  soluble  in  nitro-muriatic  acid; 
which  solution  will  tinge  the  skin  of  an  indelible  purple.  Fu- 
sible with  the  blow  pipe. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  malleability  of  native  gold 
will  distinguish  it  from  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  and  from  yel- 
low mica,  for  each  of  which  it  is  often  foolishly  mistaken. 

Gold  is  found  in  rocks,  and  in  alluvial  soils.  The  rocks, 
according  to  Kirwan,  in  which  it  most  often  occurs,  are 
granite,  or  quartz,  slate,  hornstone,  sandstone,  and  limestone. 
It  also  occurs  in  veins  of  iron  ore,  antimony  ore,  barytes, 
blende,  &c. 

The  gold  of  commerce  is,  however,  almost  exclusively 
found  in  alluvial  deposites,  where  it  occurs  in  small  particles, 
or  grains,  called  gold  dust. 

According  to  Mawe,  the  gold  mines  of  Brazil  and  Africa, 
are  entirely  on  the  surface,  the  gold  being  separated  from  the 
sand  and  gravel,  among  which  it  is  found,  by  the  simple  act 
of  washing. 

In  Brazil,  alone,  according  to  the  same  author,  above  twenty 
tons  weight  of  gold  are  annually  procured,  which  forms  a  large 
share  of  the  circulating  medium  of  Europe. 

In  Africa,  gold  dust  is  an  article  of  commerce,  and  consid- 
erable quantities  are  exposed  for  sale,  or  to  exchange  for  com- 
modities. 


What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  native  gold  ? — In  what  foreigii 
countries  is  gold  found  ? 


MINERALOGY.  235 

The  gold  of  Africa  is  often  adulterated  with  those  varieties 
of  pyrites,  which  are  nearest  its  colour,  and  also  with  brass 
filings. 

This  fraud  might  easily  be  detected,  by  throwing  the  dust 
into  nitric  acid,  which  would  dissolve  the  other  substances, 
leaving  the  gold  untouched. 

Gold  is  found  in  greater  or  less  abundance,  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  globe.  Jameson  observes,  that  although  in  com- 
parison with  iron,  gold  occurs  in  very  small  quantities,  yet  it 
is  nearly  as  widely  distributed  in  nature. 

In  some  rare  instances,  considerable  masses  of  gold  have 
been  found.  In  1730  amass  was  found  in  Peru  weighing  45 
pounds.  In  Paraguay,  several  masses  are  said  to  have  oc- 
curred, weighing  from  20  to  50  pounds.  Cleveland  mentions 
a  mass  found  on  Meadow  Creek,  N.  Carolina,  which  weighed 
28  pounds,  and  Phillips  mentions  one  which  occurred  in  Wick- 
low,  Ireland,  weighing  22  ounces. 

In  the  viceroyaltyof  La  Plata,  in  South  America,  there  are 
thirty  gold  mines,  or  workings. 

The  mines  of  Hungary  are  said  to  be  the  most  valuable  in 
Europe. 

The  gold  mines  of  the  United  States,  are  confined  to  the 
state  of  North  Carolina.  According  to  the  statement  of 
Prof.  Olmstead,  (Sill.  Jour.  vol.  9,)  the  gold  country  is  spread 
over  a  space  of  not  less  than  a  thousand  square  miles,  in  that 
state. 

Reed's  Mine,  in  Cabarras  County,  where  the  large  mass 
above  mentioned  was  found,  has  also  afforded  many  smaller 
pieces  weighing  from  four  to  six  hundred  penny  weights. 

Anson  Mine,  is  situated  in  the  County  of  Anson,  on  the  wa- 
ters of  Richardson's  creek.  This  locality  was  discovered 
three,  years  since. 

Parker's  Mine,  is  situated  on  a  small  stream,  near  the  Yad- 
kin  river. 

These  three  mines  are  regularly  wrought,  by  making  exca- 
vations a  few  feet  below  the  surface,  and  washing  the  earth 
in  a  manner  similar  to  the  prpcess  used  in  South  America  for 
the  same  purpose.  The  prevailing  rock  in  the  gold  country 
is  argillite.  The  country  is  of  a  diluvial  formation,  consisting 
of  clay  and  sand,  generally  barren,  and  the  inhabitants  poor. 

It  is  not  easy,  observes  Prof.  Olmstead,  to  ascertain  the  pre- 
cise amount  of  gold  which  these  mines  have  afforded,  as  it  is 

What  has  been  the  weight  of  some  masses  of  native  gold  ? — Where  has 
gold  been  found  in  this  country? 


236  INTRODUCTION  TO 

sold  to  merchants,  and  others,  in  small  quantities,  by  indi- 
viduals. 

In  1820,  the  mint  of  the  United  States  had  received  to  the 
amount  of  forty -three  thousand  six  hundred  eighty-nine  dollars 
of  this  gold. 

The  gold  region  in  the  United  States  extends  from  Canada 
to  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Cherokee  nation  in  Georgia, 
and  from  the  Rappahannock  in  Virginia,  to  the  Coosa  in  Ala- 
bama. The  chief  mines,  however,  are  in  North  and  South 
Carolina,  and  Georgia.  In  Fredericksburgh,  Va.  gold  has 
been  discovered  in  veins,  whence  fine  specimens  have  been 
brought. 

The  different  mines  worked  in  the  United  States  for  gold, 
have  greatly  increased  within  a  few  years,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  business,  if  properly  managed,  affords  a  fair  income,  though 
comparatively  few  have  been  enriched  by  it. 

The  stream  mines  in  the  United  States,  have  afforded  in  the 
whole,  about  six  millions  of  dollars.  Three  vein  mines  in 
Georgia,  have  yielded  500,000  dollars. 

GENUS  in. — MERCURY. 

Mercury  is  found  native,  also  combined  with  sulphur,  form- 
ing a  sulphuret  of  mercury;  with  muriatic  acid,  forming  a 
muriate  of  mercury  ;  and  with  silver,  forming  a  native  amal- 
gam. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  MERCURY. 

External  characters.  Colour,  silver  white;  occurs  in  small 
globules ;  perfectly  fluid ;  feels  cold  to  the  touch :  lustre 
splendent:  sp.  gr.  13. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  volatile  when  heated,  and 
flies  off  in  white  vapour. 

Composition.     Mercury,  nearly  or  quite  pure. 

It  is  found  in  small  quantities  among  the  ores  of  mercury. 
In  Idria,  it  occurs  in  limestone  and  sandstone. 

Species  2.     NATIVE  AMALGAM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  silver  white,  or  grayish, 
often  tarnished  externally;  occurs  massive  lamelliform,  in 
plates,  and  in  crystals  ;  form  the  octohedron,  and  rhombic  do- 
decahedron ;  fracture  flat  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining;  some- 
times semi-fluid;  cleavage  none;  whitens  the  surface  of  po- 
lished copper,  when  rubbed  on  it:  sp.  gr.  10.5. 

What  are  the  states  in  which  mercury  is  found  ? — How  is  native  mercu- 
ry known  7 — What  is  native  amalgam  ? 


MINERALOGY.  237 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  the  mercury 
flies  off  in  \vhite  smoke,  leaving-  a  globule  of  pure  silver. 

Composition.     Mercury  64  ;  silver  36. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  character.  Its  want  of  ductility  will  distinguish 
t  from  native  silver. 

Localities.  Hungary,  Siberia,  and  Sweden.  It  is  found 
with  native  mercury,  and  cinnabar. 

Species  3.     SULPHURET  OF  MERCURY.     CINNABAR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  scarlet,  or  carmine,  passing 
into  cochineal-red,  and  lead-gray;  occurs  massive,  and  crys- 
tallized in  acute  rhomboids,  variously  modified  :  translucent, 
oropake;  streak  scarlet-red;  lustre  adamantine,  inclining  to 
metallic;  fracture  granular  or  fibrous:  sp.  gr.  8. 

It  sometimes  occurs  in  thin  plates,  or  tabular  crystals,  and 
rarely  in  imitative  shapes. 

Chemical  characters.  It  is  volatile  before  the  blow  pipe, 
with  the  odour  of  sulphur. 

Composition.     Mercury  84.5  ;  sulphur  14.75. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  red  silver  ore,  sulphuret  of 
arsenic,  red  oxide  of  copper,  and  arseniate  of  cobalt,  it  is 
distinguished  by  entirely  disappearing  before  the  blow  pipe, 
without  the  odour  of  garlic,  or  without  leaving  a  metallic 
globule. 

Variety  1.     FIBROUS  CINNABAR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  scarlet-red,  often  with  a 
tinge  of  yellow;  occurs  massive;  structure  fibrous;  lustre 
shining  silky;  soils  the  fingers;  often  invests  other  minerals. 

Slaty  Cinnabar.  This  variety  scarcely  differs  from  the 
others,  except  in' possessing  irregular  smooth  faces,  having  a 
slaty  appearance  when  broken. 

Localities.  Upper  Carinthia,  in  gneiss.  Transylvania,  in 
gray  wacke.  Its  most  important  repositories  are  Idria,  in 
Carniola,  and  Almandin,  in  Spain.  At  Idria  the  mine  has 
been  wrought  several  centuries,  and  is  now  many  hundred 
feet  under  the  surface  of  the  earth.  A  great  proportion  of  the 
mercury  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  this  locality.  It  occurs 
in  beds  of  bituminous  shale,  associated  with  black  mineral  re- 
sin, gray  sandstone,  and  limestone.  The  product  of  this  mine 
has  been  chiefly  sold  to  Spain,  by  a  stipulation  between  the 
German  and  Spanish  governments. 


What  is  the  colour  of  native  cinnabar  ?— How  is  native  amalgam  distin- 
guished from  other  minerals? 


238  INTRODUCTION  TO 

The  mines  of  Almandin  occur  in  mountain  clay-slate,  and 
shale,  and  have  been  worked  more  than  two  thousand  years, 

In  South  America,  there  are  several  quicksilver  minos,  bm 
the  quantity  of  metal  which  they  produce  is  small,  when  com- 
pared with  those  already  mentioned. 

U.  S.  On  the  borders  of  the  lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  St. 
Clair  and  Erie,  and  at  the  mouth  of  Vermilion  river,  cinna- 
bar occurs  in  the  form  of  a  dark  red  sand,  which,  according  to 
Mr.  Siickney,  yields  about  60  per  cent,  of  mercury. 

Mode  of  obtaining  Mercury  from  the  Ci7inabar.  The  cin- 
nabar being  mixed  with  iron  filings,  or  lime,  and  placed  in  re- 
torts; on  the  application  of  heat,  the  sulphur  unites  with  the 
iron  filings,  or  lime,  while  the  mercury  being  thus  disengaged, 
is  distilled  over  in  its  pure  state. 

Uses.  A  great  proportion  of  the  mercury  of  commerce  is 
employed  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  its  ores  by  amalga- 
mation. According  to  Humboldt,  the  quantity  employed  in 
South  America  for  this  purpose  amounts  to  about  twenty-five 
thousand  quintals  annually. 

Mercury  is  also  used  in  the  construction  of  two  of  the  most 
important  among  philosophical  instruments,  the  barometer  and 
thermometer  ;  when  united  with  tin  foil,  it  forms  the  amalgam 
placed  over  the  backs  of  lookingglasses.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  process  of  gilding,  and  in  medicine  it  is  the  basis  of  seve- 
ral preparations  of  the  highest  value,  and  for  which  there  is 
no  substitute. 

Species  4.     MURIATE  OF  MERCURY. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish*  white,  yellowish 
white,  and  ash  gray;  occurs  massive  and  crystallized,  in  four- 
sided  prisms,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids,  with  rhombic 
faces;  also  in  crystalline  crusts  :  translucent;  streak  white; 
crystals  very  small  ;  lustre  adamantine  ;  fracture  conchoidal  ; 
yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  8.4. 

Chemical  character.     Volatile  before  the  blow  pipe. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  mercury  88.48  ;  muriatic  acid  1  1.52. 
—Mohs. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  muriate  of  silver  which  it  most 
resembles,  is  soft,  and  leaves  a  globule  of  the  metal  under  the 
blow  pipe. 

Localities.  Idria,  in  Germany,  and  Almandin,  in  Spain,  in 
cavities  of  sandstone,  or  clay,  with  cinnabar. 


How  is  mercury  extracted  from  cinnabar?  —  What  are  the  chief  uses 
mercury?  —  What  is  the  composition  of  muriate  of  mercurv  ? 


MINERALOGY.  239 

GENUS  iv. — SILVER. 

Silver  is  found  native,  also  combined  with  sulphur,  and  mu- 
riatic acid,  forming  sulphuret  and  muriate  of  silver.  It  like- 
wise exists  in  the  metallic  state,  combined  or  mixed  with 
several  other  metals. 

Species  I.     NATIVE  SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  silver  white,  often  tarnished 
gray,  or  reddish  ;  occurs  dentiform,  capillary,  ramose,  massive, 
reticulated,  and  in  plates  and  spangles;  also  crystallized  in 
cubes,  and  octohedrons  ;  sp.  gr.  10  to  10.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  globule.  Soluble  in. 
nitric  acid,  formirio-  a  solution  which  tinges  the  skin  indelible 
black. 

Composition.  Silver,  with  a  little  iron,  antimony,  copper, 
or  arsenic. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  colour  and  malleability  will 
always  distinguish  it. 

It  is  found  in  primitive,  and  secondary  rocks,  with  the  ores 
of  silver,  copper,  cobalt,  &c. 

Localities.  Saxony,  and  Suabia,  in  gneiss  and  mica  slate. 
Bohemia,  Norway,  Ireland.  In  several  places  in  England, 
and  in  many  of  the  mines  of  South  America. 

U.S.  Huntington,  Conn,  with  native  bismuth.  Near  Ports 
mouth,  N.  H.  a  single  mass  has  been  found.  Near  Sing  Sing, 
N.  Y.  in  a  small  vein. 

Native  silver  often  occurs  penetrating  crystals,  or  amor- 
phous pieces  of  co'mnmn  quartz.  These,  when  the  quartz  is 
transparent,  are  sometimes  cut  into  various  shapes,  and  po- 
lished as  cabinet  specimens,  or  curiosities,  and  are  often  very 
beautiful. 

In  several  instances,  large  masses  of  native  silver  have  been 
found.  Thus  many  years  since,  a  mass  occurred  near  Frey- 
berg,  in  Saxony,  weighing  lOOlbs.  Iqr.  Another  mass  was 
found  in  the  mine  of  Konsberg,  which  weighed  560lbs. ;  and 
Jameson  mentions  a  block  of  the  same  metal  discovered  in 
the  mine  of  Schneeberg,  in  Saxony,  which  was  so  large,  that 
Duke  Albert  descended  into  the  mine  and  made  use  of  it  as  a 
dinner  table.  This  huge  mass,  when  smelted,  produced  four 
hundred  centners,  (a  centner  being  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds,) 
of  pure  silver. 


What  are  the  substances  with  which  silver  is  found  combined? — What 
is  native  silver  ? — How  may  native  silver  be  distinguished? — What  is  said 
of  large  masses  of  native  silvei  1 


2*0  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  2.     ANTIMONIAL  SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  silver  or  tin  white  5  occurs 
massive,  in  grains,  and  in  hexahedral  prisms,  or  cylinders  , 
also  in  curved  laminas  ;  lustre  metallic;  yields  to  the  knife, 
fracture  conchoidal  ;  not  malleable:  sp.  gr.  9  to  10. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  the  emission  of  anti- 
monial  vapour,  into  a  globule  of  silver. 

Composition.     Silver  84  ;  antimony  14.  —  Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  distinguished  from  native  sil- 
ver by  its  want  of  ductility,  and  the  antimonial  vapour,  under 
the  blow  pipe  ;  from  arsenical  iron,  and  arsenical  cobalt,  by  its 
want  of  the  garlic  odour,  when  heated,  and  from  white  cobalt 
ore  by  not  giving  a  blue  globule  with  borax. 

It  is  found  in  granite  and  clay-slate,  associated  with  the  othe> 
ores  of  silver. 

Localities.     Spain,  Suabia,  the  Hartz,  Allemont,  in  France 

It  is  a  rare  mineral, 


SULPHURET    OF    SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  lead-gray,  often  with  an 
iridiscent  tarnish;  occurs  in  cubes,  and  octahedrons;  also 
reticulated,  ramose,  lamelliform,  amorphous,  and  in  plates  ; 
lustre  metallic  ;  cleavage  imperfect  :  fracture  flat  conchoidal  ; 
malleable;  easily  sectile  :  sp.  gr.  7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  intumescence,  and  odour 
of  sulphur,  leaving  a  globule  of  silver. 

Composition.     Silver  85  ;  sulphur  15.  —  Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  native  silver,  it  may  be  known 
by  its  less  specific  gravity,  and  its  sulphurous  odour  under  the 
blow  pipe. 

It  occurs  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  and  is  associa- 
ted with  the  other  ores  of  silver. 

Localities.  Freyberg,  Bohemia,  many  places  in  Peru,  and 
Mexico,  the  Hartz,  Cornwall,  and  other  places  in  England, 
and  in  Lower  Austria. 

U.  S.     Livingston's  lead  mine,  Columbia  County,  N  Y. 

The  present  species  is  found  in  almost  every  silver  mine, 
in  greater  or  less  quantity,  and  is  an  important  ore  for  the  ex- 
traction of  silver. 

Variety  2.     BRITTLE  SULPHURET  or  SILVER. 

External  characters.     Colours,  dark  lead-gray,  or  bluish 

What  is  the  composition  of  antimonial  silver  ?  —  What  is  the  colour  of 
sulphuret  of  silver?  —  What  is  the  composition  of  sulphuret  of  silver1?  — 
Is  this  ore  of  any  importance  1 


MINERALOGY. 


241 


gray,  passing  into  iron  black ;  occurs  massive  and  dissemi- 
nated;  also  in  hexahedral  prisms,  with  truncated  terminal 
edges,  and  so  short  as  to  become  lenticular;  lustre  metallic 
or  dull;  structure  foliated;  crystals  mostly  intercept  each 
other  ;  soft  and  brittle;  fracture  conchoidal :  sp.  gr.  7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  the  evaporation  of  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  and  antimony,  into  a  globule  of  silver  surrounded 
by  a  slag.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Silver  66.5;  antimony  10;  iron  5;  sulphur 
12;  arsenic  and  copper  5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters. — It  differs  from  sulphuret  of  silver, 
in  its  want  of  malleability,  and  from  arsenico-antimonial  silver, 
by  its  darker  colour  and  brittleness 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  with  the  other  ores  of  silver, 
and  is  a  rich  ore. 

Localities.  Near  Freyberg,  in  Saxony.  Bohemia,  and 
Hungary. 

Species  5.     SULPHURETTED  ANTIMONIAL  SILVER. 

RED  SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  red,  of  various  shades,  passing 
into  lead-gray,  and  grayish  black ;  powder  crimson  red ;  oc- 
curs in  masses  and  grains,  also  dentritic,  membranous,  capil- 
lary, and  crystallized  in  hexahedral  prisms,  terminated  by 
hexahedral  pyramids,  variously  modified  by  truncation  ;  also 
in  double  six-sided  pyramids,  with  the  edges  replaced  ;  lustre 
metallic  adamantine;  crystals  often  striated;  structure  im- 
perfectly foliated;  yields  to  the  knife;  translucent,  opake:  sp. 
gr.  5.20  to  6.68. 

Fig.  141. 


Fig.  141.  A  six-sided  prism,  terminated  by  three- 
sided  pyramids,  the  faces  of  which  stand  alter- 
nately on  the  lateral  edges  of  the  prism. 


Fig.  1 42.     A  double  six-sided  pyramid,  with  the 

acute  angles  truncated. 


What  is  the  colour  of  sulphuretted  antimonial  silver?— What  are  the 
crystalline  forms  of  sulphuretted  anttmonial  silver? 
21 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig.  143.  A  dodecahedron,  or  double  six  sided  pyr- 
amid with  the  summits  truncated,  or  replaced  by  three 
planes. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  antimonial  fumes,  into 
a  globule  of  silver. 

'Composition.     Silver  60;   antimony  20.3;   sulphur    14.7; 
oxygen  5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  it  dif- 
fers in  having  a  greater  specific  gravity,  and  in  leaving  a 
globule  of  silver.  Sulphuret  of  mercury  is  entirely  dissipa- 
ted by  the  blow  pipe.  The  sulphuret  of  silver  is  malleable. 
Specular  oxide  of  iron,  after  being  submitted  to  the  blow  pipe 
is  magnetic,  and  the  red  oxide  of  copper  is  easily  reduced  to 
the  metallic  state  by  the  blow  pipe. 

It  is  found  chiefly  in  granite,  mica-slate,  and  porphyry. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Transylvania,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  very  abundantly  in  Mexico,  and  Peru. 

It  is  a  valuable  ore  for  the  extraction  of  silver. 

Species  7.     CARBONATE  OF  SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  gray,  or  blackish  gray  ;  oc- 
curs massive  and  disseminated  ;  fracture  uneven  ;  texture  fine- 
grained; lustre  glistening  metallic;  brittle. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  and  easily  reduced.  Effer- 
vesces in  acids. 

Composition.  Silver  72.5 ;  carbonic  acid  12 ;  oxide  of  anti- 
mony and  a  trace  of  copper  15.5. 

Localities.  Furstenburg,  Suabia,  in  sulphate  of  barytes. 
It  is  a  very  rare  ore. 

Species  8.     MURIATE  OF  SILVER.     HORN  SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pearl  gray,  greenish  or  red- 
dish blue,  yellowish  or  greenish  white  and  brown:  occurs 
massive,  investing  other  minerals,  renifonn,  amorphous,  and 
crystallized  in  cubes,  octohedrons,  and  acicular  prisms;  vari- 
ously modified ;  lustre  glistening  and  waxy  ;  soft,  yields  to 
pressure;  malleable;  feebly  translucent;  becomes  brown  ex- 
ternally by  exposure ;  sp.  gr.  5.5. 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  this  ore  1— What  is  the  compoa- 
tk>n  of  carbonate  of  silver? 


MINERALOGY.  243 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  in  the  flame  of  a  candle. 
Under  the  blow  pipe,  emits  muriatic  acid  fumes,  and  is  re- 
duced to  a  globule  of  silver.  Rubbed  on  moistened  zinc,  it 
leaves  a  film  of  silver. 

Composition.  Muriate  of  silver  88.7;  oxide  of  iron  6; 
alumine  1.75;  sulphuric  acid  0.25. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  muriate  of  mercury,  which  it 
resembles,  is  entirely  volatile  before  the  blow  pipe.  The  pre- 
sent species  leaves  a  silver  globule. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  with  the  other  ores  of  silver. 

Localities.     Freyberg,  in  Saxony.      Hungary,  ia  several 
mines,  South  America,  Cornwall,  England,  Siberia,  Spain, 
and  France. 
*     [t  is  a  o-ood  ore  for  the  extraction  of  silver. 


S  1.       ARGILLACEOUS    MURIATE    OF    SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brownish  white,  greenish 
white,  or  pale  green,  externally  bluish,  or  brownish ;  occurs 
massive,  and  coating  other  minerals;  fracture  earthy;  opake ; 
soft,  sometimes  nearly  fluid. 

Chemical  characters.  It  feebly  aglutinates  under  the  blow 
pipe,  while  minute  globules  of  silver  flow  from  the  mass. 

Composition.  Silver  24.64;  muriatic  acid  8.28;  alumine 
with  a  trace  of  copper  67  08. — Klaproth. 

Locality.     Andreasberg,  in  the  Hartz. 

Silver  was  probably  unknown  to  the  antediluvians,  as  it  is 
nowhere  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  who  only 
speaks  of  brass  and  iron,  among  the  metals.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham,  it  appears  to  have  been  an  article  of  common  traf- 
fic, in  the  form  of  bars  and  ingots. — Calmet. 

According  to  Humboldt,  the  late  annual  product  of  the 
South  American  silver  mines  may  be  estimated  at  more  than 
32  millions  of  dollars. 

According  to  Shaw,  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  extracted 
from  the  American  mines,  from  1492  to  1803,  has  been  equal 
in  value  to  5,706,700,000  dollars,  of  which  immense  sum  it 
is  estimated,  that  including  the  booty  which  the  Spaniards  took 
from  the  natives,  about  5,445,000,000  was  carried  to  Europe, 
making  a  yearly  average  of  17  millions  and  a  half  for  311 
years. 

The  annual  importation  of  these  metals  from  South  Ameri- 


Whai  are  the  chemical  characters  of  muriate  of  silver  ? — Whatis  the  use 
of  muriate  of  silver? — At  what  period  of  the  world  did  silver  come  into 
use  ?  What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  which  has  been 
from  the  inines of  South  America? 


244  INTRODUCTION  TO 

ca  to  Europe  has  been  constantly  increasing.  From  1492 
to  1500,  the  yearly  importation  did  not  exceed  250,000  dol- 
lars. From  1500  to  1545,  it  amounted  to  3,000,000.  From 
1545  to  1600,  it  was  11,000,000.  From  1600  to  1700,  to 
16,000,000.  From  1700  to  1750,  22,000,000  and  a  half. 
And  lastly,  from  1750  to  1803,  the  annual  amount  was 
35,300,000  dollars. 

Humboldt  calculates  the  weight  of  silver  raised  from  these 
mines  in  three  centuries,  to  have  been  316  millions  of  pounds. 
GENUS  v. — COPPER. 

Copper  is  found  native,  also  combined  with  sulphur,  with 
oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  arsenic  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  muriatic 
acid,  and  with  several  of  the  metals.  Its  ores  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  many  of  them  highly  beautiful  and  interesting. 

Uses.  Copper,  next  to  iron,  is  probably  the  most  indispen- 
sable metal,  to  the  wants  of  man.  Its  uses  are  various  and 
generally  known.  Brass,  a  compound,  in  universal  use,  is 
composed  of  copper  and  zinc.  Bell  metal,  bronze,  pinchbeck, 
speculum  metal,  and  many  other  useful  compounds,  are  al- 
loys of  copper,  with  various  other  metals.  Its  salts  and  oxides 
are  employed  as  paints,  in  colouring,  and  enamelling,  &c. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  copper  red,  tarnished  exter- 
nally brownish  black;  occurs  dentritic,  capillary,  reniform, 
and  amorphous  ;  also  crystallized  in  cubes,  and  octohedrons, 
variously  modified  by  truncation;  malleable:  sp.  gr.  8.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible.  Soluble  in  acids,  forming 
salts,  which  give  a  beautiful  blue  when  mixed  with  liquid 
ammonia. 

Composition.      Copper,  nearly  or  quite  pure. 

It  is  found  in  the  veins  of  primitive  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Siberia,  Suabia,  Saxony,  Norway,  and  in  many 
of  the  copper  mines  in  England. 

U.  S.  Monroe  County,  Illinois.  Near  Lake  Superior, 
North  West  Territory,  a  mass  was  found  weighing  by  esti- 
mation 2,200lbs. — Schoolcraft.  Orange  County,  Va.  Blue 
ridge,  Md.  Adams  County,  Penn.  Woodbridge,  N.  J.  Ham- 
den  hills,  Conn.,  a  mass  was  found  weighing  about  90lbs. 
Also  12  miles  from  New-Haven,  another  mass  was  found  of 
61bs.  weight. — Silliman.  West  Hartford,  and  at  Bristol, 
Conn.  Deerfield,  Mass.  Schuyler's  mine,  N.  J. 

What  are  the  substances  with  which  copper  is  found  combined? — What 
is  the  appearance  of  native  copper? — What  is  said  of  large  masses  of  native 
copper. 

-    . 


MINERALOGY.  245 

Species  2.     SULPHURET  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  blackish  lead  gray,  some- 
times iridiscent ;  internally  lead  gray,  or  tin  white;  occurs 
massive,  and  in  pseudomorphous  crystals  ;  also  crystallized  in 
long  tabular  six-sided  prisms,  variously  modified,  and  in  ob- 
tuse, and  acute  double  six-sided  pyramids,  with  the  summits 
often  truncated:  structure  perfectly  lamellar ;  cleavage  easy, 
with  brilliant  faces  ;  easily  broken  into  grains  ;  crystals  small 
and  grouped  ;  the  massive  sectile,  passing  into  hard  ;  fracture 
conchoidal:  sp.  gr.  about  5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  the  odour  of  sulphur, 
into  a  grayish  metallic  globule.  Soluble  in  hot  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Copper  76.50 ;  sulphur  22 ;  iron  0.50. — 
Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Gray  copper  decrepitates  under  the 
blow  pipe,  and  is  harder  than  the  present  species.  Grayan- 
timonial  copper  gives  out  the  fumes  of  antimony.  Red  oxide 
of  copper  is  easily  known  from  it,  by  the  difference  of  colour. 

Variety  1.     VARIEGATED  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  violet  blue,  greenish,  and 
yellowish,  sometimes  resembling  tempered  steel ;  lustre  me- 
tallic: occurs  in  regular  octohedrons ;  also  massive,  with  a 
granular  texture:  sp.gr.  5. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  on  charcoal,  and  becomes 
magnetic,  if  the  heat  be  some  time  continued. 

Composition.  Copper  61. 07;  sulphur  23.75  ;  iron  14.00; 
silica  0.50. — Phillips. 

Localities.  Mont  Blanc,  Norway,  Sweden,  Ireland, 
Cornwall,  &c. 

U.  S.  Chesterfield,  Mass.,  in  thin  seams  in  granite.  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  in  the  greenstone  rocks,  two  miles  from  the  city. 

Species  3.     FERRUGINOUS  SULPHURET  OF  COPPER. 

COPPER    PYRITES. 

External  characters.  Colours,  golden,  or  brass  yellow, 
often  with  an  external  iridiscent  tarnish:  occurs  dentritic, 
stalactical,  amorphous,  in  concretions,  and  crystallized;  form, 
the  tetrahedron,  with  the  solid  angles  often  truncated,  also  the 
dodecahedron,  formed  by  raising  a  three-sided  pyramid,  on 
the  faces  of  the  tetrahedron;  lustre  shining,  and  metallic; 
structure  lamellar ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  octo- 

What  is  the  colour  of  sulphuret  of  copper? — What  is  the  composition  of 
sulphuret  of  copper  ?— What  is  the  colour  of  copper  pyrites  1 
21*      ' 


246  INTRODUCTION  TO 

hedron;  faces  brilliant;  crystals  small,  and  seldom  perfect; 
yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  4.3. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  globule,  which 
on  continuing  the  heat  becomes  magnetic.  Tinges  borax  green. 

Composition.  Copper  40  to  35.5  ;  iron  40  to  33  ;  sulphur 
20  to  35. 

Different  specimens  seldom  yield  the  same  proportions  of 
these  ingredients.  It  often  contains  a  portion  of  silex. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  iron  pyrites,  but  this 
is  commonly  of  a  bronze  yellow,  and  does  not  tinge  borax 
green.  'Native  bismuth  is  laminated,  and  melts  with  great 
ease  into  a  bright  globule,  that  of  the  present  species  being 
black.  Native  gold  is  malleable. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  common  and  abundant  ores  of  copper. 

Localities.  Spain,  Bohemia,  Siberia,  Silesia,  Norway,  Ja- 
pan, Cornwall,  and  many  other  places  in  England. 

U.S.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.  Also  in  Chester,  Dela- 
ware County.  On  the  Hudson,  N.  Y.  in  many  places.  Chesh- 
ire, Simsbury,  Farmington,  and  Granby,  Conn.  Woburn, 
Brighton,  ani  Cambridge,  Mass. 

It  is  a  valuable  ore  for  the  extraction  of  copper,  and  from  it 
a  great  proportion  of  that  used  in  commerce,  is  obtained. 

Variety  1.     PURPLE  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  blue,  or  yellow,  sometimes 
intermediate  between  bronze  yellow,  and  copper  red ;  iridis- 
cent;  occurs  massive,  and  crystallized  in  the  form  of  cubes 
with  curvilinear  faces,  and  truncated  angles ;  also  in  plates 
which  are  sometimes  hexagonal ;  structure  imperfectly  lamel- 
lar ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  regular  octohedron  ; 
soft ;  easily  frangible ;  lustre  metallic ;  subject  to  tarnish : 
sp.  gr.  5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  globule  which  is  mag- 
netic. Effervesces  with  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Copper  58 ;  iron  18;  sulphur  19;  oxygen 
5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  greater  specific  gravity,  and  its 
variegated  colours,  will  distinguish  it  from  ferruginous  sul- 
phuret  of  copper. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  with  the  other 
ores  of  copper. 

Localities.     Arendal,  Cornwall,  Switzerland,  Saxony,  &c. 

How  may  this  ore  be  distinguished  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  cop- 
per pyrites'? — Of  what  use  is  this  ore? — What  is  said  of  purple  copper"? 


MINERALOGY. 


247 


Species  4.     GRAY  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel-gray,  passing  into  iron, 
black ,  streak  brownish ;  occurs  amorphous,  disseminated, 
and  crystallized  in  tetrahedrons,  of  which  Hauy  has  enumera- 
ted twelve  modifications;  lustre  glistening  and  metallic  ;  brit- 
tle ;  crystals  small  and  grouped:  sp.  gr.  about  5. 
Fi£j."l44. 


Fig.  144.     The  tetrahedron,  with  the  edges 
bevelled,  or  replaced  by  two  planes. 


Fig.    145.      The  same,  with  the  edges  and 
solid  angles  truncated. 


Fig.  146.     The  pyramidal  dodecahedron,  with 
curved  faces. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  but  not  easily  reduced  to 
the  metallic  slate. 

Composition.  Copper  52  ;  iron  23 ;  sulphur  14. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  Specular  oxide  of  iron  is  magnetic ; 
arsenical  iron  is  harder  than  gray  copper,  and  gives  out  ar- 
senical fumes  when  heated. 

It  is  found  with  the  other  ores  of  copper,  and  with  those  of 
iron  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Freyberg,  in  Saxony.  Gornor,  in  Hungary 
Several  places  in  trie  Tyrol.  Spain,  Scotland,  England,  &c. 

Species  4.     TENNANTITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  lead-gray,  passing  into  black- 
ish gray ;  occurs  crystallized  in  the  form  of  rhombic  dodeca- 
hedrons; also  in  cubes  and  regular  octohedrons;  cleavage 
imperfect;  structure  foliated ;  lustre  metallic ;  streak  reddish 
gray;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  4.37. 


What  is  the  colour  of  gray  copper  ? — What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of 
gray  copper1? — What  is  tennantite? 


243 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Chemical  characters.  Burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  and  then 
3mits  arsenical  vapours,  leaving  a  black  magnetic  scoria. 

Composition.  Copper  45.32;  arsenic  11.84;  iron  9.26; 
sulphur  28.74  ;  silex  5. — Phillips. 

Locality.     Cornwall,  Eng.  in  several  of  the  copper  mines. 

Variety  1.     WHITE  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  internally  nearly  silver  white, 
sometimes  with  a  tinge  of  yellow  ;  soon  tarnishes ;  lustre 
metallic  and  glistening;  occurs  massive  and  disseminated; 
yields  to  the  knife;  fracture  fine-grained,  uneven;  brittle: 
sp.  gr.  4.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  arsenical  vapours,  into 
a  dark  slag. 

Composition.  Copper  40 ;  the  remainder  being  iron,  arse- 
nic, and  sulphur. —  Vauquelin. 

Localities.     Cornwall,  with  other  copper  ores. 

U.  S.  Fairfield,  Conn,  in  compact  masses,  colour  metallic ; 
sp.  gr.  5. — Silliman. 

Species  5.     RED  OXIDE  OF  COPPER.    OCTOHEDRAL  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  red,  of  various  shades,  as 
deep  cochineal  red,  grayish  red,  and  pure  cochineal  red;  oc- 
curs amorphous  and  crystallized  in  regular  octohedrons,  and 
cubes,  variously  modified  by  truncation,  and  bevelment ;  struc- 
ture lamellar,  but  rarely  visible;  cleavage  parallel  to  cli3 
planes  of  the  octohedron:  lustre  metallic  adamantine;  frac- 
ture conchoidal,  uneven;  translucent;  yields  to  the  knife; 
brittle;  powder  vermilion  red:  sp.  gr.  4  to  5.9. 
Fig.  147. 


Fig.  147. 
mary  form. 


The  regular  octohedron,  the  pri< 


Fig.  148.  The  same,  with  all  the  solid  angles 
truncated,  producing  quadrangular  planes. 


What  is  the  composition  of  white  copper? — WThat  are  the  crystallm* 
forms  of  octohedral  copper  ? 


MINERALOGY.  249 

Fig.  149. 

Fig.  149.  The  octohedron,  with  its  edges 
and  solid  angles  truncated,  the  angles  produced 
by  the  truncation  being  stightly  bevelled,  form- 
ing three  planes. 


Fig.  150.     The  rhombic  dodecahedron,  with 
all  its  edges  and  solid  angles  slightly  truncated. 


According  to  Phillips,  this  mineral  occurs  under  100  second- 
ary forms. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  and  easily  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state.  Dissolves  with  effervescence,  in  nitric  acid ; 
in  muriatic  acid,  without  effervescence. 

Composition.     Copper  9 1  ;  oxygen  9. — Klaproth. 

Copper  88.5;  oxygen  11.5. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  red  colour  of  this  species,  and 
its  effervescence  in  nitric  acid,  will  distinguish  it  from  red 
silver  ore,  which  does  not  effervesce,  and  from  the  sulphurets 
of  copper,  which  are  not  red.  Cinnabar  does  not  effervesce, 
and  is  volatile  by  the  blow  pipe. 

Oxide  of  copper  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks, 
associated  with  the  other  ores  of  copper. 

It  is  found  in  small  quantities,  but  its  localities  are  numerous. 

Species  6.     BLUE  CARBONATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  blue,  of  different  shades,  as 
azure,  or  indigo  blue;  occurs  massive,  stalactical,  incrusting, 
disseminated,  and  crystallized;  primitive  form,  the  oblique 
rhomboidal  prism ;  secondary  forms  anoctohedral  prism,  with 
dihedral  summits,  and  an  oblique  four-sided  prism,  truncated 
on  its  two  opposite  lateral  edges,  and  terminated  by  four-sided 
summits;  fracture  imperfectly  foliated,  usually  presenting 
broad  diverging  fibres. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  without  addition;  with  bo- 
rax, gives  a  green  glass,  and  yields  a  metallic  globule.  Dis- 
solves with  effervescence  in  nitric  acid. 


How  many  secondary  forms  of  this  ore  are  said  to  exist  ?— What  is  the 
composition  of  this  ore  ? 


250  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  70  ;  carbonic  acid  24  ;  wa- 
ter 6. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  sulphate  of  copper,  which  it 
may  resemble,  is  soluble  in  water.  Azure  phosphate  of  iron 
becomes  magnetic  under  the  blow  pipe. 

Some  specimens  of  implanted  crystals  present  brilliant  shi- 
ning faces  in  every  position,  and  being  of  an  intense  rich  blue, 
are  peculiarly  striking  and  beautiful. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  mountains. 

Localities.  Chili,  Bohemia,  the  Hartz.  Most  of  the  cop- 
per mines  in  England.  Chessy,  in  France.  Uralian  moun- 
tains, &c. 

U.  S.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.  Schuyler's  mines, 
N.  J.  Hartford,  Conn. 

Jameson  remarks,  that  this  species  is  not  only  used  as  an 
ore  of  copper,  but  also  as  a  pigment,  called  mountain  blue,  of 
which  there  is  a  manufactory  in  the  Tyrol. 

Species  7.     GREEN  CARBONATE  OF  COPPER.      MALACHITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  emerald,  grass,  or  apple 
green,  also  verdigris  green  ;  streak  and  powder,  lighter  green  ; 
occurs  tuberous,  globular,  reniform,  mammillary,  and  stalac- 
tical;  also  in  fibres,  and  curved  folia,  and  rarely  in  crystals; 
form  four-sided  prisms,  generally  very  minute;  and  in  rhom- 
bic prisms;  lustre  shining,  or  dull:  sp.  gr.  about  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  black,  but  does  not  melt  alone  ; 
with  borax,  gives  a  dark  greenish  glass;  effervesces  with 
acids,  and  forms  a  blue  colour  with  ammonia. 

Composition.  Copper  48;  oxygen  12.50;  carbonic  acid 
18;  water  11.50. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  the  green  oxide  of  uranium, 
the  green  phosphate  of  lead,  and  the  green  muriate  of  copper, 
it  is  distinguished  by  its  effervescence  with  acids.  The 
green  arseniate  of  copper  gives  out  the  garlic  odour  when 
heated. 

Variety  1.     FIBROUS  MALACHITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  of  various  shades ; 
occurs  in  delicate  shining  fibres,  sometimes  radiated,  or  fascic- 
ulated ;  lustre  silky  ;  translucent;  very  soft;  brittle. 

It  is  found  incrusting  other  minerals,  particularly  ores  of 

What  is  the  composition  of  blue  carbonate  of  copper  ? — What  is  the 
use  of  blue  carbonate  of  copper  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  green  car- 
bonate of  copper  ? 


MINERALOGY.  251 

copper,  in  thin  layers,  composed  of  radiating,  delicate  fibres,  of 
a  glistening,  silky  lustre. 

According  to  Jameson,  these  fibres  are  regular  crystals,  of 
which  Estner  determined,  that  some  were  six-sided  prisms, 
with  bevelled  edges,  others  three-sided  truncated  prisms,  &c. 

It  occurs  in  small  quantities  with  other  ores  of  copper. 

Localities.  Silesia,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia,  and  the 
several  mines  in  England. 

U.  S.  Schuyler's  mines,  N.  J.  Perkiomen  lead  mine, 
Penn.  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  small,  but  good  specimens. — 
Sililman. 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  MALACHITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  emerald  green,  pass- 
ing into  apple,  verdigris,  or  grass  green ;  occurs  in  masses, 
composed  of  botryoidal,  globular,  or  reniform  concretions,  of 
a  fibrous  radiating  structure,  closely  compacted  together. 
Sometimes  the  concretions  are  concentric  lamellar  in  one  di- 
rection, and  fibrous  in  another  ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  opake ; 
lustre  glistening  and  silky ;  aspect  often  striped. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  72.2;  carbonic  acid  18.5  ; 
water  9.3. — Phillips. 

It  occurs  with  the  blue  carbonate  of  copper,  and  fibrous 
malachite. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  England,  Russia,  Saxony,  Norway, 
and  Siberia. 

U.  S.  Blue  Hills,  Md.  Near  Nicholas'  Gap,  Penn.  Near 
Boundbrook,  N.  J.  Greenfield,  Mass. 

Uses.  It  is  ground,  and  employed  as  a  paint,  and  is  some- 
times cut  and  polished  for  jewelry.'  Specimens  are  sometimes 
found  of  considerable  size,  and  are  sawn  into  thin  plates,  and 
polished  as  curiosities,  for  the  covers  of  boxes,  or  are  worked 
into  vases,  &c.  These,  when  polished,  display  the  radiated 
structure,  and  silky,  changeable  lustre  of  the  mineral  to  great 
advantage,  and  are  often  extremely  beautiful. 

Jameson  remarks,  that  Patrin  saw  a  slab  of  green  malachite 
at  St.  Petersburo-h,  which  was  thirty-two  inches  long,  and  seven- 
teen broad,  and  was  valued  at  twenty  thousand  livres. 

Species  8.     CHRYSOCOLLA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  verdigris  green,  passing- 
into  emerald,  or  leek  green,  also  yellowish  green,  and  sky 
blue ;  occurs  massive,  botryoidal,  reniform,  and  sometimes 
coating  malachite ;  fracture  small  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining- 

What  are  the  uses  of  compact  malachite? 


252  INTRODUCTION  TO 

resinous ;  yields  to  the  knife,  sometimes  with  difficulty :  sp. 
gr.  2  to  2.4;  translucent;  brittle. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  black,  and 
.inges  the  flame  green.  With  borax  forms  a  green  glass, 
and  yields  a  globule  of  metallic  copper.  Effervesces  slightly 
with  acids. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  50;  carbonic  acid  1  \  water 
17;  silex  25. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  translucency,  and  feeble  effer- 
vescence, will  distinguish  it  from  malachite. 

Aiken  says,  that  this  mineral  passes  on  one  side  into  mala- 
chite, and  on  the  other  into  chalcedony,  and  hence  it  varies 
in  composition  and  hardness. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  England,  Hungary,  Norway,  Bo- 
hemia, Siberia,  Mexico,  Chili. 

U.  S.  Somerville  copper  mine,  N.  J.,  where  it  exists  with 
native  copper,  and  malachite.  Also  at  the  Basin  mine,  Nova 
Scotia,  associated  with  other  ores  of  copper. 

Species  9.     MURIATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  emerald,  verdigris,  or  leek 
green ;  also  blackish  green ;  streak,  pale  green  ;  occurs  in 
minute  octohedrons,  either  with  wedge-shaped  terminations, 
or  variously  truncated,  or  both :  also  in  lamellar  masses,  and 
in  concretions  composed  of  acicular  crystals  resembling  mala- 
chite; structure  lamellar;  brittle;  lustre  shining;  translu- 
cent; crystals  often  transparent:  sp.  gr.  3.52  to  4.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Communicates  bright  blue  and  green 
colours  to  the  flame  of  a  candle ;  before  the  blow  pipe  gives 
the  muriatic  odour,  and  melts  into  a  globule  of  copper.  Solu- 
ble in  nitric  acid,  without  effervescence. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  arseniate  of  copper,  it  differs 
in  emitting  the  muriatic,  instead  of  the  garlic  odour.  From 
malachite  it  is  known  by  the  same,  properties,  as  well  as  by 
the  peculiar  colour  it  gives  to  the  flame. 

Localities.  Remolinos,  in  Chili,  with  carbonate  of  copper 
Peru,  with  the  ores  of  silver.  Vesuvius,  in  lava. 

U.  S.     Woburn,  Brighton,  and  Medford,  Mass. 

Species  10.     SULPHATE  or  COPPER.     BLUE  VITRIOL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  deep  rich  blue,  and  sky  blue; 
artificial  crystals,  four,  six,  or  eight-sided  prisms,  often  termi- 
nated by  dihedral  summits;  native  crystals  very  rare;  more 

What  is  the  colour  of  muriate  of  copper  1 — What  are  the  chemical  char- 
icters  of  muriate  of  copper  7 


MINERALOGY.  253 

commonly  occurs  stalactical,  and  pulverulent;  taste  styptic, 
and  nauseous;  when  rubbed  on  moistened,  polished  iron, 
leaves  a  coat  of  copper. 

Sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue  vitriol,  is  sometimes  found  in 
solution,  in  the  water  proceeding  from  mines  of  the  sulphuret 
of  copper,  and  from  the  decomposition  of  which,  it  is  pro- 
duced. 

Localities.  Anglesea,  in  England.  Wicklow,  in  Ireland. 
Fahlun,  in  Sweden.  Near  Goslar,  in  Hungary. 

At  the  copper  mine  of  Anglesea,  considerable  quantities  of 
the  metal  are  obtained  by  throwing  into  the  water  which  comes 
from  the  mine,  waste  iron,  on  which  the  metallic  copper  is 
precipitated. 

The  blue  vitriol  of  commerce  is  obtained  partly  by  crystal- 
lizing such  natural  Solutions,  and  partly  by  lixiviating  inferior 
ores  of  copper. 

Uses.  Its  principal  use  is  in  dying.  It  is  also  employed 
in  medicine. 

Species  12.      BRACK  ANTITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  emerald  green ;  occurs  in 
hexahsdral  prisms,  with  modified  pyramidal  terminations; 
one  face  of  the  pyramid,  blackish  and  dull,  the  others  smooth 
and  shining;  traces  cleavage  parallel  to  the  dull  face;  trans- 
parent ;  yields  to  the  knife :  sp.  gr.  3.7. 

Composition.  Sulphuric  acid  17.426;  oxide  of  copper 
66.935;  oxide  of  tin  3.145  ;  oxide  of  lead  1.048;  water  11.917. 
— Magnus. 

Locality.  Siberia,  on  green  malachite  ;  also  in  powder  in 
Hungary  and  France. 

Brachantite,  is  named  in  honour  of  Brachant,  the  French 
geologist. 

Species  13.     PHOSPHATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  emerald,  verdigris,  or  black- 
ish green,  often  darker  on  the  surface;  occurs  crystallized  in 
rhombic  prisms  with  curvilinear  faces,  and  in  octohedrons, 
often  elongated,  and  terminating  in  truncated  pyramids  ;  crys- 
tals very  small,  and  fasciculated  or  grouped ;  also  it  occurs  in 
mammillary,  or  reniform  concretions,  composed  of  radiating, 
or  diverging  delicate  fibres,  and  in  thin  plates,  opake ;  crys- 
tals often  translucent ;  lustre  resinous,  or  silky;  structure  fo- 
liated ;  cleaves  in  two  directions :  sp.  gr.  4. 

Is  the  sulphate  of  copper  ever  a  natural  product  7 
22 


254  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  brownish  globule, 
which  extends  itself  on  the  charcoal,  and  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  tallow,  is  reduced  to  a  small  globule  of  copper.  Dissolves 
without  effervescence  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  68.13;  phosphoric  acid 
30.95. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  solubility  without  effervescence, 
will  distinguish  it  from  malachite,  and  the  effects  of  the  blow 
pipe  will  distinguish  it  from  arseniate  of  copper,  chrysocolla, 
and  muriate  of  copper. 

Localities.  Hungary,  at  several  places.  Cornwall,  in 
England  ;  and  near  Cologne,  in  Italy. 

Species  14.     ARSENIATE  OF  COPPER. 
Variety  1.     OCTOHEDRAL  ARSENIATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  sky  blue,  bluish  white, 
greenish  white,  or  verdigris  green  ;  streak  pale ;  occurs  in 
obtuse  pyramidal  octohedrons,  composed  of  two  four-sided 
pyramids  joined  base  to  base;  crystals  small;  cleavage  par- 
allel to  all  the  planes  of  an  obtuse  octohedron;  lustre  vitre- 
ous; translucent,  semi-transparent;  brittle;  not  so  hard  as 
fluor:  sp.  gr.  2.88. 
,Fig.  151. 

Fig.  151.  An  obtuse  octohedron,  or  t\vo  four- 
sided  pyramids  set  on  a  short  common  base;  a  form 
under  which  this  mineral  commonly  occurs.  The 
crystals  are  often  flattened,  so  as  to  become  nearly 
lenticular. 


Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  scoria  ;  with  bo- 
rax, yields  a  metallic  bead  of  copper.  Gives  the  garlic  odour 
when  heated. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  49;  arsenic  acid  14;  water 
35. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  malachite,  in  not  effer- 
vescing with  acids,  and  in  giving  the  odour  of  garlic.  Green 
oxide  of  uranium,  is  not  reduced  by  the  blow  pipe.  Muriate 
of  copper  exhales  the  muriatic  vapour. 

Locality.  Cornwall,  in  England,  with  many  other  varieties 
of  copper  ore. 

What  is  the  composition  of  phosphate  of  copper  1 — What  is  the  compo- 
sition of  arseniate  of  copper  ? 


MINERALOGV.  2&» 

Variety  2.     RHOMBOIDAL  ARSENIATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  pure  green,  emerald  green, 
grass  green,  rarely  bluish  green,  or  greenish  white;  occurs 
in  six-sided  tabular  crystals,  of  which  the  lateral  planes  are 
trapeziums ;  cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  the  rhom- 
boid ;  structure  foliated,  with  brilliant  faces  parallel  to  the 
broader  planes ;  transparent,  translucent ;  crystals  sometimes 
arranged  in  rose-like  forms,  and  sometimes  form  foliated,  or 
tabular  masses,  which  are  divisible  like  those  of  mica  ;  yields 
to  the  knife,  or  nail:  sp.  gr.  2.54. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  globule ;  with  borax, 
yields  a  bead  of  copper. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  58  ;  arsenic  acid  21 ;  water 
21. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  These  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
variety  above,  while  it  may  be  distinguished  from  that  variety, 
by  the  forms  of  its  crystals,  and  foliated  structure. 

Localities,    Cornwall,  in  several  of  the  copper  mines. 

Variety  3.     OBLIQUE  PRISMATIC  ARSENIATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  bluish  black,  or  deep  black ; 
occurs  in  curved  lamellar  concretions,  and  more  rarely  in  mi- 
nute oblique  rhombic  prisms;  crystals  fasciculated,  or  radia- 
ting, and  often  of  a  beautiful  blue,  by  transmitted  light ;  when 
massive,  nearly  black;  translucent,  or  transparent;  yields  to 
the  knife:  sp.  gr.  4.2. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe,  flows  like  wa- 
ter, and  in  cooling,  crystallizes  in  plates  of  a  brown  colour. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  54 ;  arsenic  acid  30 ;  water 
16. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  peculiar  chemical  characters, 
and  its  crystallization  on  cooling,  will  distinguish  it  from  sub- 
stances it  most  resembles.  ' 

Locality.     Cornwall,  with  the  other  varieties  of  this  species. 

Variety  4.     BRIGHT  PRISMATIC  ARSENIATE  OF  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  various  shades  of  olive  green, 
passing  into  yellowish,  brownish,  or  blackish  green ;  occurs 
in  prismatic  crystals ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  a 
right  rhombic  prism  ;  crystals  often  capillary ;  translucent ; 
opake ;  shapes  of  the  massive,  globular,  and  reniform ;  sur- 
face drusy ;  brittle :  sp.  gr.  2.28. 

Chemical  characters.    Fusible  with  a  kind  of  deflagration. 

What  varieties  of  arseniate  of  copper  are  described? 


256  INTRODUCTION  TO 

and  by  continuing  the  heat,  is  reduced  ;  the  globule  of  copper 
being  covered  with  a  coating  of  the  red  oxide.  Soluble  in 
nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  50 ;  arsenic  acid  29 ;  water 
21. — Chenevix. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  difference  between  the  chemical 
characters  of  this  variety,  and  that  above,  will  distinguish  them 
from  each  other. 

Localities.     Cornwall  and  Cumberland,  Eng. 

Species  15.     MARTIAL  ARSENIATE  or  COPPER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  leek  green,  olive  green, 
passing  into  white;  also,  pale  blue,  and  yellowish  green; 
streak,  white  ;  occurs  in  reniform  masses,  composed  of  minute 
crystals,  and  in  crystals,  the  forms  of  which  are  right  rhombic 
prisms,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids;  lustre  vitreous; 
harder  than  calcareous  spar;  translucent,  or  transparent; 
fracture  uneven ;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  3.16. 

Chemical  characters.  Emits  an  arsenical  odour,  and  melts 
into  a  brownish  scoria,  which  acts  on  the  magnet. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  22.5  ;  oxide  of  iron  27.5 ; 
arsenic  acid  33.5;  water  12;  silex  3. — Chenevix. 

The  great  copper  mine  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  has  been 
worked  to  the  depth  of  1200  feet,  and  one  of  the  Cornwall 
copper  mines,  is  1800  feet  deep.  In  both  of  these  mines,  the 
heat  is  so  great  that  the  miners  carry  on  their  labour  with  lit- 
tle or  no  clothing,  in  the  coldest  season.  In  the  Fahlun  mine, 
according  to  Dr.  Clarke,  the  heat  to  a  stranger  is  absolutely 
intolerable.  This  high  temperature,  is  in  part  owing  to  the 
fires  which  are  kindled  to  soften  the  rock,  or  break  it  in  pieces, 
so  as  to  lessen  the  labour  of  the  miners,  and  in  part  to  the  great 
depth  of  the  mines,  the  heat  increasing,  it  is  said,  in  proper 
tion  to  the  descent  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

Species  16.     KUPAPHRITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  apple  green,  passing 
into  verdigris  green,  and  sky  blue ;  occurs  in  crystals,  of 
which  the  primitive  is  the  right  rhombic  prism ;  secondary, 
the  same,  with  the  acute  lateral  edges  truncated ;  also  reni- 
form, and  botryoidal,  sometimes  drusy  surfaces ;  lustre  pearly 
translucent  on  the  edges :  sp.  gr.  3.098. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  throwing  off  little 
fragments,  and  colouring  the  flame  green.  Turns  black,  and 

What  is  the  composition  of  martial  arseniate  of  copper  ? — What  is  said 
of  the  copper  mines  of  Sweden  and  England? 


MINERALOGY.  257 

melts  into  a  steel  gray  globule,  with  the  emission  of  arsenical 
vapour. 

Composition.  Arsenic  acid  25.366  ;  oxide  of  copper  43.660 ; 
water  19.824;  carbonate  of  lime  11.150. — Kobell. 

Localities.  Kupaphrite  occurs  in  Hungary,  in  the  Tyrol, 
and  at  Matlock,  in  Derbyshire. 

GENUS  vi. — LEAD. 

The  colour  of  pure  lead,  is  bluish  gray,  approaching  to  white, 
but  it  soon  tarnishes  on  exposure  to  the  air.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  11.  The  ores  of  this  metal  are  numerous,  but  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  sulphuret  of  lead,  they  are  of  no  considerable 
importance  to  the  arts. 

Lead  is  found  native,  also  combined  with  several  of  the 
other  metals ;  with  sulphur,  with  several  of  the  acids,  with 
oxygen,  with  several  of  the  acidified  metals,  and  with  carbonic 
acid. 

Uses.  The  uses  to  which  this  metal  is  applied  are  nu- 
merous and  important.  In  its  metallic  state,  it  is  employed  in 
the  construction  of  aqueducts;  for  covering  the  roofs  of  houses ; 
for  the  linings  of  boilers,  for  certain  uses;  in  the  composition 
of  pewter,  &c.  Its  oxides  and  salts,  are  employed  as  paints, 
in  the  composition  of  glass ;  in  medicine,  and  in  several  of  the 
more  common  arts. 

This  metal  is  inert  on  the  living  system,  but  its  salts  and 
oxides  operate  as  slow,  but  certain  poisons. 

Species  1.     SULPHURET  OF  LEAD.     GALENA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  bluish  gray,  lead  gray,  ex- 
ternally blackish  gray,  and  sometimes  irised ;  occurs  crystal- 
lized, amorphous,  and  reticulated ;  form  the  cube,  and  regular 
octohedron,  with  many  of  their  varieties ;  structure  lamellated ; 
cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  cube,  which  is  its  primi- 
tive form;  lustre  of  the  cleaved  surfaces,  very  brilliant;  soft; 
brittle;  opake;  when  massive,  the  structure  is  granular,  and 
the  fracture  uneven,  flat  conchoidal :  sp.  gr.  7.5. 
Fig.  152. 

>^[\         Fig-  152.     The  regular  octohedron,  a  form  next 
^x.      I  \    to  the  cube,  under  which  the  present  species  most 
y  ^^y~^  commonly  appears. 

What  are  the  uses  of  metallic  lead  ?— Is  this  metal  a  poison  in  its  me- 
tallic state?— In  what  combination  does  it  become  poisonous  1— What  is 
the  colour  of  galena  ? 

22* 


Fig.  IBS/ 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig.  153.     The  octohedron,  with  its  edges 
bevelled,  or  replaced  by  two  planes. 


Fig.  154.     The  octohedron,  with  its  solid  an- 
gles deeply  truncated,  and  the  edges  replaced. 


Chemical  characters.  First  decrepitates,  and  then  melts 
with  the  odour  of  sulphur,  into  a  globule  of  lead. 

Composition.  (A  mean  of  4  specimens.^  Lead  67.5  ;  sul- 
phur 17;  lime  and  silex  15.5.  —  Vauquelii 

Distinctive  characters.  Between  the  su  f)huret  of  lead,  and 
the  sulphuret  of  zinc,  there  are  these  distinctions.  The  lead 
is  reduced  to  a  metallic  globule,  by  the  blow  pipe,  and  is  fixed  ; 
while  the  zinc  being  reduced,  is  soon  evaporated.  Molybdena 
is  infusible,  as  is  the  case  with  graphite. 

Variety  1.     GRANULAR  GALENA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  the  same  as  in  the  species; 
occurs  massive,  composed  of  small  crystalline  grains,  irregu- 
larly disposed;  fracture  granular  ;  lustre  shining;  resembles 
steel  ;  less  apt  to  tarnish,  than  the  other  varieties. 

In  other  respects,  it  does  not  differ  from  the  species. 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  GALENA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  light  lead  gray  ;  occurs  in 
nodules,  or  small  masses;  fracture  conchoidal;  structure  fine- 
grained ;  texture  close,  and  compact  ;  lustre  moderate;  often 
contains  silver. 

Variety  3.     SPECULAR   GALENA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  lead  g'ray  ;  occurs  in  ex- 
tremely thin  coatings,  on  quartz,  and  other  substances;  lustre 
splendid,  with  an  appearance  of  polish. 

This  variety,  from  its  high  lustre,  is  called  by  the  miners, 
slickensides,  or  looking  glass  lead  ore. 

This  variety  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Derbyshire  lead  mines, 
and  Mr.  Phillips  states  the  curious  circumstance,  that  when 


What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  galena  1 


MINERALOGY  259 

two  vein-stones  meet,  the  surface  of  each  being  coated  with 
this  variety,  there  is  a  loud  report,  or  explosion,  produced  on 
separating  them,  the  fragments  at  the  same  time  being  pro- 
jected in  various  directions. 

Variety  4.     ANTIMONIAL  SULPHURET  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  passing  into  dark 
lead  gray,  or  iron  black;  occurs  amorphous  and  crystallized, 
in  the  form  of  rectangular  prisms,  variously  modified  ;  or  in 
elongated  cubes;  crystals  grouped;  structure  lamellar,  af- 
fording brilliant  faces  parallel  to  the  planes  of  a  four-sided 
prism;  brittle;  lustre  strongly  metallic;  crystals  striated  on 
certain  faces;  soft;  yields  to  the  nail:  sp.  gr.  5.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  the  escape  of  white  an- 
timonial  fumes,  into  a  metallic  globule,  which  contains  a  bead 
of  copper  at  the  centre. 

Composition.  Lead  42.62;  antimony  24.23;  sulphur  17; 
copper  12.8;  iron  1.2. — Hatchett. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  antimonial  fumes,  which  it 
emits,  and  the  globule  of  copper  surrounded  by  a  crust  of  lead 
which  the  blow  pipe  produces,  will  distinguish  this  variety. 

Sulphuret  of  lead  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  moun- 
tains, but  most  frequently  in  the  latter,  and  particularly  in 
limestone.  In  granite  and  limestone,  it  sometimes  constitutes 
extensive  beds,  but  more  often  occurs  in  veins  of  various  di- 
mensions and  extent.  It  is  commonly  associated  with  the 
ores  of  zinc,  copper,  and  iron,  and  often  with  those  of  silver, 
a  portion  of  which  it  generally  contains. 

Localities.  England  is  a  great  repository  of  this  ore. 
According  to  Phillips,  the  lead  mines  of  Great  Britain  pro- 
duce annually  from  45  to  48,000  tons  of  smelted  lead.  This 
is  extracted  almost  entirely  from  the  sulphuret,  the  largest 
proportion  of  which,  is  raised  from  the  mines  of  England. 

France  also  contains  its  mines  of  this  metal,  as  well  as  Sax- 
ony, Bohemia,  and  Spain. 

U.  S.  Perkiomen  creek,  23  miles  from  Philadelphia,  Penn. 
The  shaft  of  this  mine  is  170  feet  deep.  Livingston's  Manor, 
Columbia  County.  Ancram.  Shawangunk  mountain,  and 
Ulster  County,  N.  Y.  One  ton  from  Livingston's  mine,  is 
said  to  have  yielded  118  ounces  of  silver.  Huntington,  South- 
ington,  Middletown,  and  Bethlehem,  Conn.  None  of  these 
are  wrought.  Thetford,  and  Sunderland,  Vt.  Southampton 

What  are  the  varieties  of  galena  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  galena  ? 
—What  are  the  ores  with  which  galena  is  associated  ? 


260  INTRODUCTION  TO 

and  Leverett,  Mass.  The  mine  at  Southampton,  has  a  hori 
zonlal  entrance  through  the  solid  granite  of  nearly  1000  feet; 
and  is  expected  ultimately  to  yield  the  hest  ore,  in  large  quan- 
tities. Counties  of  Washington,  St.  Genevieve,  Jefferson, 
and  Madison,  Missouri.  The  number  of  mines  in  these 
counties,  according  to  Schoolcraft,  is  45.  The  ore,  on  an 
average,  yields  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  metal,  and  is  found 
in  an  alluvial  deposite,  The  whole  annual  product  of  them,  is 
about  3,000,000  of  pounds.  This  ore  is  also  found  in  Illi- 
nois, Ohio,  Indiana,  Tennessee,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  in 
various  places  in  the  North  Western  Territory. — See  Cleve- 
land's  Mineralogy,  and  Robinson's  Localities. 

Variety  5.     JAMESONITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  metallic  gray,  streak  un- 
changed ;  occurs  in  crystals,  the  right  rhombic  prism,  second- 
ary, the  primary  with  the  acute  lateral  angles  truncated;  oc- 
curs also  in  masses:  sp.  gr.  5.56. 

Chemical  characters.  Yields  in  an  open  tube  the  dense 
white  smoke  of  the  oxide  of  antimony,  and  leaves  behind 
chiefly  antimoniate  of  lead. 

Composition.  Sulphur  22.15;  lead  40.75;  copper  0.13; 
iron  2.30;  antimony  34.40. — Rose. 

Locality.  Cornwall,  Eng.,  in  considerable  masses,  also  in 
Hungary. 

Species  4.     CARBONATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  yellowish  white,  gray- 
ish white,  and  light  brown  ;  occurs  in  tabular  crystals,  in  six- 
sided  prsms,  in  cuneiform  octohedrons,  in  four-sided  prisms, 
and  in  double  six-sided  pyramids,  each  form  being  subject  to 
various  modifications,  by  truncation ;  also  massive,  compact 
in  spangles,  and  pulverulent ;  fracture  uneven ;  transparent 
or  translucent;  lustre  adamantine,  passing  into  resinous; 
brittle;  sectile;  refraction  double :  sp.  gr.  6 to  7.23. 
Fig.  155. 

Fig.  155.  A  six-sided  prism,  terminated  by 
six-sided  pyramids. 

_f 

Fig.  156. 

Fig.  156.     The  same  figure  modified  by 


truncation. 


Where  are  the  principal  lead  mines  of  this  country? — What  are  the 
colours  of  carbonate  of  lead  ? 


MINERALOGY.  261 

Fig.  157. 


Fig.  157.  A  four-sided  prism,  with  curved  faces, 
terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids,  another  common 
form. 


Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  becomes  yellow,  then 
red,  and  is  immediately  reduced  to  a  globule  of  lead.  Effer- 
vesces with  muriatic  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  82;  carbonic  acid  16;  water 
2. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  high  specific  gravity  will  dis- 
tinguish it  from  carbonate  of  lime,  and  its  effervescence  from 
the  sulphates  of  barytes  and  strontian.  Its  reduction  to  the 
metallic  state,  will  indeed  distinguish  it  from  every  mineral 
which  it  resembles. 

Crystals  of  the  carbonate  of  lead,  are  generally  grouped,  or 
aggregated,  or  intersect  each  other  in  such  a  manner,  as  to 
make  it  difficult  to  determine  their  forms. 

They  are  subject  to  decomposition,  and  in  consequence, 
become  gray  and  opake. 

When  recently  exposed,  some  specimens  are  very  beau- 
tiful. 

Carbonate  of  lead,  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary 
countries.  It  accompanies  galena,  and  the  other  ores  of  lead  ; 
also  several  of  the  ores  of  iron,  zinc,  and  copper. 

Jameson  remarks,  that  next  to  galena,  this  is  the  most  com- 
mon ore  of  lead,  but  that  it  never  occurs  so  abundantly,  as  to 
make  it  worth  working  by  itself. 

Localities.  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Siberia,  Chili,  Switzerland, 
and  in  many  of  the  lead  mines  of  England  and  Scotland. 

U.  S.  Mine  at  Burton,  Missouri,  incrusting  galena.  Wythe 
County,  Va.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.,  in  double  six- 
sided  pyramids  with  truncated  summits:  in  six-sided  prisms, 
and  in  oblique  four-sided  prisms. —  Wetherill.  Also  near 
Lancaster,  Penn. 

Species  5.     SULPHATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish  white,  gray, 

What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  carbonate  of  lead  ? — What  is  the  com- 
position of  carbonate  of  lead  ? — What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  car 
Donate  of  lead  1 


262  INTRODUCTION  TO 

red,  brown,  and  green ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  small  shining- 
crystals  ;  in  the  form  of  rhombic  prisms  with  dihedral  sum- 
mits, the  prisms  often  being  so  short  as  to  give  them  an  octo- 
hedral  form;  translucent;  transparent  in  thin  laminae,  lustre 
splendent,  and  resinous  ;  streak  white ;  easily  scraped  by  the 
knife ;  brittle :  sp.  gr.  6.29. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  and  easily  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state.  Insoluble  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  72.47;  sulphuric  acid  26.9; 
the  residue  being  water,  iron,  manganese,  and  silex. — Stro- 
meyer. 

Distinctive  characters.  Carbonate  of  lead,  which  it  resem- 
bles, effervesces  with  acids,  and  molybdate  of  lead,  which  it 
also  resembles,  is  not  easily  reduced  to  its  metallic  state,  by 
the  blow  pipe. 

It  is  found  with  sulphuret  of  lead,  from  the  decomposition 
of  which  it  may  have  been  produced. 

Localities.  Zellerfield,  in  the  Hartz,  with  the  ores  of  cop- 
per, iron,  and  lead.  Andalusia,  in  Spain.  Cornwall,  Angle- 
sea,  and  Scotland. 

U.  S.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.,  in  octohedrons. —  Weth- 
erill.  Huntington,  Conn.  Southampton,  Mass.,  in  plates  or 
tables,  on  sulphuret  of  lead. — Meade. 

Species  6.     MURIO-CARBONATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  with  tints  of  yel!o\v, 
green,  or  gray;  streak  white:  occurs  in  four-sided  prisms, 
often  so  short  as  to  become  cubes;  also  in  rectangular  prisms, 
terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids;  both  kinds  variously  mod- 
ified by  truncation ;  lustre  adamantine;  structure  lamellar; 
cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  a  four-sided  prism  ;  cross 
fracture  conchoidal;  transparent,  or  translucent;  rather  sec- 
tile  ;  brittle :  sp.  gr.  6. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  into  an  orange-coloured  glo- 
bule, and  on  continuing  the  heat,  the  acid  evaporates,  and  a 
minute  globule  of  lead  remains. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  85.5 ;  muriatic  acid  8.5  ;  car- 
bonic acid  6.5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  peculiar  behaviour  under  the 
blowpipe,  will  distinguish  it  from  carbonate  of  lead. 

Localities.  Hausbaden,  in  Germany,  and  Matlock,  in  Der- 
byshire. 

What  aie  the  colours  of  sulphate  of  lead  1 — What  is  the  composition  of 
sulphafe  of  lead  ?— What  is  the  composition  of  raurio 'carbonate  of  lead  ? 


MINERALOGY.  263 

U.  S.  Southampton  lead  mine,  Mass.,  in  groups  of  light 
green,  nearly  transparent,  cubic  crystals,  with  four-sided  sum- 
mits.— Meade. 

Species  7.     PHOSPHATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  green,  brown,  grass  green, 
olive,  pistachio,  and  blackish  green  ;  sulphur  yellow,  greenish 
yellow,  wax  yellow ;  aurora  red,  hyacinth  red  ;  hair  brown, 
clove  brown ;  pearl  gray,  and  ash  gray ;  occurs  amorphous, 
in  crusts,  in  concretions,  and  in  crystals ;  form,  the  six-sided 
prism,  often  truncated  on  the  lateral  or  terminal  edges;  also 
the  dodecahedron,  or  double  six-sided  pyramid  ;  fracture  small 
grained,  or  uneven,  passing  into  splintery ;  lustre  glistening, 
resinous,  or  adamantine  ;  crystals  sometimes  acicular,  and 
often  grouped;  translucent;  yields  easily  to  the  knife;  brit- 
tle :  sp.  gr.  6  to  7. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  on  charcoal,  it 
usually  decrepitates,  then  melts,  and  on  cooling  forms  a  poly- 
hedral globule,  the  faces  of  which  present  concentric  polygons ; 
if  this  globule  be  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  borax,  it  melts 
into  a  milk-white  enamel,  which,  on  continuing,  the  bead  be- 
comes transparent,  the  lower  part  being  studded  with  globules 
of  metallic  lead. — Aiken. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  77.10;  phosphoric  acid  19.0; 
muriatic  1.54:  oxide  of  iron  0.10. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  carbonate  of  lead, 
and  carbonate  of  copper,  in  not  effervescing  with  acids.  Its 
peculiar  behaviour  under  the  blow  pipe,  will  distinguish  it  from 
most,  if  not  all  other  substances. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Siberia,  Cornwall,  in  several 
lead  mines  Lead  Hill,  in  Scotland,  Ireland. 

U.  S  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.  Southampton,  Mass. 
Lenox  lead  mine,  in  Maine. 

Variety  1.     ARSENIATED  PHOSPHATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellow,  and  greenish  yellow, 
of  various  shades;  occurs  crystallized,  in  the  form  of  the  spe- 
cies ;  also  reniform  and  mammillated ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
lustre  resinous. 

Chemical  characters.  Exhales  the  arsenical  vapour,  and 
yields  a  globule  of  lead. 


What  are  the  colours  of  phosphate  of  lead  1 — What  are  the  chemica 
characters  of  phosphate  of  lead  1 


264  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.     Oxide  of  lead  76;  phosphoric  acid  13;  ar- 
senic acid  7;  muriatic  acid  1.75  ;  water  5. — Klaproth. 
Localities.     Saxony,  and  Hosiers,  in  France. 

Variety  2.     BLUE  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  lead  gray,  and  indi- 
go blue ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  six-sided  prisms,  often  some- 
what bulging,  or  with  convex  faces ;  fracture  conchoidal,  or 
fine  grained 5  uneven;  lustre  glimmering  metallic;  frag- 
ments indeterminate ;  soft,  easily  frangible ;  opake :  sp.  gr. 
5.46. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  the  emission  of  sul- 
phureous vapours,  a  part  of  the  globule  being  reduced,  while 
the  other  part,  on  cooling,  crystallizes  in  dodecahedrons. 

Prof.  Silliman  supposes  this  to  be  a  mixture  of  the  sulphu- 
ret,  and  the  phosphate  of  lead,  in  which  opinion  he  is  follow- 
ed by  Prof.  Mohs. 

Lf  ca/ities.     Huelgoet,  in  France,  and  in  Saxony. 

Species  7.     ARSENIATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grass  green,  wine  yellow, 
hair  brown,  and  yellowish  white :  occurs  in  small  slender  six- 
sided  crystals,  either  perfect  or  with  truncated  edges,  and  in 
minute  crystals,  gathered  into  bundles,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
assume  the  general  appearance  of  six-sided  prisms;  translu- 
cent, rarely  transparent ;  when  transparent,  scratches  glass  ; 
lustre  resinous;  brittle;  also  occurs  in  mammillary  concre- 
tions, and  in  filaments,  with  a  silken  lustre  :  sp.  gr.  5  to  6.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Gives  out  nrsenical  vapours,  and 
is  reduced  to  metallic  lead.  It  does  not  effervesce  with  acids. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  69.76;  arsenic  acid  26.4;  mu- 
riatic acid  1.58. — Gregor. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  and  Devonshire,  in  several  of  the 
lead  mines.  St.  Pr  x;  in  the  department  of  Saone,  in  France. 

Variety  1.     RENIFORM  ARSENIATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brownish  red,  passing  into  a 
straw  yellow  ;  occurs  in  reniform  masses;  fracture  conchoi- 
dal; lustre  glistening,  resinous;  opake;  soft,  brittle:  sp.  gr. 
3.9. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  arsenical  vapour,  into 
a  black  globule,  out  of  which  ooze  little  globules  of  metallic 
lead. 


What  are  the  varieties  of  phosphate  of  lead  ?— What  are  the  colours  of 
nrseniate  of  lead  ? 


MINERALOGY. 


2G5 


Composition.  Lead  25;  oxide  of  iron  14;  silver  1.15; 
arsenic  acid  25;  silex  7;  alumine  2;  water  10. — Bindheim. 

Distinctive  characters.  Arseniate  of  lead  differs  from  the 
carbonate,  the  molybdate,  and  the  phosphate  of  lead,  by  the 
emission  of  the  garlic  odour,  when  heated ;  also  the  carbonate 
effervesces,  the  molybdate  is  with  difficulty  reduced,  and  the 
phosphate  crystallizes  in  polyhedrons  on  cooling-. 

Locality.     Nertschinsk,  in  Siberia. 

Species  8.     MOLYBDATE  OF  LEAD. 

External,  characters.  Colours,  wax,  or  honey  yellow,  pass- 
ing into  lemon,  or  orange  yellow,  and  brownish  yellow ;  oc- 
curs in  crystals,  and  rarely  massive ;  form,  the  octohedron, 
variously  modified  ;  sometimes  it  is  truncated  on  all  its  angles, 
or  on  the  solid  angles  of  the  summits  only ;  sometimes  it  is 
found  in  four-sided  tables,  or  nearly  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  or 
parallelepiped,  or  eight-sided  table,  either  truncated  or  bevel- 
led; sometimes  these  tables  so  intersect  each  other,  as  to  jriva 
the  mass  a  cellular  structure;  fracture  imperfectly  conchoi- 
dal ;  soft;  brittle;  yields  to  the  knife;  lustre  waxy:  sp.  gr. 
5.9. 

Fig.  15S. 

Fig.  158.     The  octohedron,  truncated  on  all 
its  sol  id  angles. 


Fig.  159.  An  eight-sided  table,  produced 
by  the  deep  truncation  of  all  the  angles  of 
an  octohedron,  forming  the  table;  and  the 
truncation  of  the  common  base,  producing 
the  eight  sides. 


Fig.  160. 


Fig.  160.  Another  secondary  form,  in  which 
the  solid  angles  are  truncated,  with  the  trunca- 
tion of  the  edges  of  the  common  base,  in  form  ;;r 
a  scalene  triangle. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  dark  gray  mass,  which 
by  the  utmost  effort  of  the  blow  pipe,  yields  globules  of  lead. 
Soluble,  without  effervescence,  in  hot  nitric  acid. 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  arseniate  of  lead? — What  are  tho 
colours  of  molybdate  of  lead  ? — What  are  crystalline  forms  of  molybdato 
of  lead  ? 

23 


266  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  64.42 ;  molybdic  acid  34.25. 
— Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  carbonate,  and 
sulphate  of  lead,  in  the  difficulty  of  its  reduction.  The  arsen- 
iate  of  lead  emits  the  garlic  odour;  the  phosphate  is  not 
reduced  without  a  flux,  and  the  muriate  of  lead  emits  the  smell 
of  muriatic  acid.  Its  sp.  gr.  will  distinguish  it  from  the  earthy 
minerals. 

Localities.  Bleyberg,  in  Carinthia,  Zimapan,  in  Mexico. 
Annaberg,  in  Austria,  and  in  the  Tyrol. 

U.  S.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.,  where  it  occurs  in 
quadrangular  tables,  variously  modified. — Conrad.  South- 
ampton lead  mine,  Mass.,  in  small  tabular  crystals,  of  a  dark 
wax  yellow. — Meade. 

Species  9.     COBALTIC  GALENA. 

External  characters.  Colours,  lead  gray,  inclining  to 
blue ;  occurs  massive,  and  in  very  small  moss-like  grouped 
crystals ;  lustre  metallic ;  and  when  recently  fractured,  splen- 
dent ;  opake ;  soft ;  sectile ;  soils  the  fingers  a  little :  sp.  gr. 
8.44. 

Chemical  characters.  Reducible  on  charcoal  to  metallic 
lead,  attended  with  arsenical  odour ;  with  borax  gives  a  blue 
bead. 

Composition.  Lead  62.89 ;  arsenic  22.47;  sulphur  0.47; 
iron  2.11 ;  cobalt  0.94;  arsenical  pyrites  1.44. — Dumenil. 

Localities.  Near  Clausthral,  in  the  Hartz,  in  a  vein  of 
clav  slate,  and  brown  spar,  traversing  gray  wacke. 

Species  10.     CHROMATE  OF  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colours,  orange,  or  aurora  red,  or 
hyacinth  red,  always  rich  and  beautiful;  occurs  crystallized, 
and  rarely  massive ;  form,  the  rectangular  four-sided  prism, 
variously  modified,  also  the  compressed  eight-sided  prism, 
with  two,  three,  or  four-sided  terminations;  crystals  often 
broad  and  flat ;  sometimes  striated,  and  generally  incomplete, 
their  geometrical  characters  being  difficult  to  determine;  lus- 
tre resinous;  translucent;  yields  to  the  knife;  brittle:  sp. 
gr.  6. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  crackling,  into  a  gray- 
ish slag;  tinges  borax  green. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  lead  63.96 ;  chromic  acid  36.40. — 
Klaproth. 

How  is  molybdate  of  lead  distinguished  from  other  minerals  ?— What  ia 
the  colour  of  chromate  of  lead  7 


MINERALOGY.  267 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  sulphuret  of  ar- 
senic, from  red  antimonial  silver,  and  from  cinnabar,  in  thii 
respect,  that  all  these  are  more  or  less  volatile  under  the  blow 
pipe,  while  the  present  species  is  fixed. 

Localities.  Beresof,  in  Siberia,  in  a  gold  mine,  Cocaes,  in 
Brazil,  artd  Zimapan,  in  Mexico. 

The  native  chrornate  of  lead,  is  a  rare,  and  scarce  mineral. 
The  artificial  chromate  is  of  a  beautiful  bright  yellow,  and  is 
employed  with  oil,  in  the  finer  kinds  of  painting. 

The  chromic  acid,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  this  article, 
is  extracted,  by  a  chemical  process,  from  the  chromate  of 
iron. 

This  paint  is  manufactured  at  Philadelphia,  the  chromic 
acid  being  obtained  from  the  chromate  of  iron,  which  is  found 
near  Baltimore. 

GENUS  vii. — BISMUTH. 

Colour,  when  pure,  reddish  white;  lustre  brilliant;  texture 
foliated ;  softer  than  copper ;  breaks  when  struck  smartly  with 
a  hammer  ;  melts  at  476,  Fah. :  and  if  the  heat  be  increased, 
evaporates  in  the  form  of  yellow  oxide ;  may  be  distilled  in  a 
close  vessel :  sp.  gr.  9.82. 

Uses.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  printing  type.  Its 
oxides  are  employed  as  paints,  and  in  medicine. 

The  ores  of  bismuth  are  few,  and  rarely  found. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  BISMUTH. 

External  characters.  Colour,  silver  white,  with  a  tinge  of 
copper  red;  occurs  amorphous,  plumose,  and  reticulated; 
also  crystallized  in  the  form  of  octohedrons  and  cubes ;  struc- 
ture lamellar,  with  joints  parallel  to  the  planes  of  an  octohe- 
dron;  soft;  lustre  brilliant ;  subject  to  tarnish :  sp.  gr.  9. 

Chemical  characters.  Easily  fusible,  and  by  continuing  the 
heat,  evaporates  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  oxide.  Soluble  in 
nitric  acid,  but  is  precipitated  on  dilution  with  water. 

Distinctive,  characters.  Native  bismuth  diners  from  the  sul- 
phuret  of  bismuth,  in  not  giving  out  the  sulphureous  odour 
when  heated;  the  sulphuret  is  also  of  a  pale  lead  gray  colour, 
instead  of  reddish  white ;  its  want  of  malleability,  and  easy 
fusion  will  distinguish  it  from  native  silver  and  native  copper, 
and  its  colour  will  distinguish  it  from  native  antimony. 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  chromate  of  lead?— What  ia  the 
use  of  artificial  chromate  of  lead  ?— What  is  the  colour  of  bismuth  ?— What 
are  the  uses  of  bismuth  ?— What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  native 
bismuth? 


263  INTRODUCTION  TO 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  particularly  in  quartz, 
gneiss,  and  mica-slate,  where  it  is  generally  associated  with 
cobalt,  arsenic,  and  silver. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Suabia,  Norway,  and  Eng- 
land, each  contain  localities  of  this  metal. 

V.  S.  Huntington,  Conn.,  in  broad  plates,  disseminated  in 
a  vein  of  quartz. — Silliman.  Also  Trumbull,  Conn.,  in  tabu- 
lar masses,  with  the  sulphurets  of  iron  and  lead. — Phillips 
Also  at  Munroe,  Conn. 

Species  2.     SULPHURET  OF  BISMUTH. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  lead  gray,  and 
tin  white;  occurs  amorphous,  lamelliform,  and  acicular; 
structure  foliated,  or  fibrous;  cleavage  of  the  foliated,  parallel 
to  the  sides  and  shorter  diagonal  of  a  rhombic  prism  ;  some- 
times occurs  in  fibrous  radiating  masses;  lustre  shining,  me- 
tallic: soft;  brittle;  streak  unchanged:  sp.  gr.  6. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  by  the  flame  of  a  candle; 
under  the  blow  pipe,  gives  the  flame  and  odour  of  sulphur,  and 
is  chiefly  volatilized,  the  residue  being  with  difficulty  reduced 
to  its  metallic  state. 

Composition.     Bismuth  60;  sulphur  40. — Sage. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  native  bismuth,  in 
colour,  and  in  giving  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  under  the  blow  pipe. 
Sulphuret  of  lead  is  easily  reduced  to  a  metallic  globule;  sul- 
phuret  of  antimony  disappears  entirely  before  the  blow  pipe. 

Localities.  These  are  much  the  same  with  those  of  native 
bismuth,  with  which  it  is  commonly  found. 

Species  3.     OXIDE  OF  BISMUTH. 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish,  or  yellowish  gray; 
occurs  massive  and  pulverulent;  fracture  earthy;  structure 
imperfectly  lamellar  ;  opake  ;  soft;  dull;  and  brittle  :  sp.gr. 
about  4.37. 

Chemical  characters.  Easily  reduced,  on  charcoal,  to  the 
metallic  state.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  bismuth  86.3;  oxide  of  iron  5. 2; 
carbonic  acid  4. 1 ;  water  3.4. — Lampidius. 

GENUS  vin. — NICKEL. 

Pure  nickel  is  of  a  brilliant  white  colour,  resembling  silver. 
It  is  malleable,  both  hot  and  cold.  It  is  not  so  hard  as  wrought 
iron,  and  like  it,  is  magnetic.  It  fuses  at  160°  of  Wedgewood. 
In  nitric  acid,  it  gives  a  greenish  solution ;  tarnishes  fjy  heat, 

What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  sulphuret  of  bismuth  ? 


MINERALOGY.  269 

and  runs  through  nearly  the  same  changes  that  heated  steel 
does:  sp.  gr.  9. 

Nickel  is  not  an  abundant  metal.  Its  ores  are  few  in  num- 
ber, and  rarely  found. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  NICKEL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  when  fresh  broken,  pale  yel- 
low, with  a  tinge  of  gray;  occurs  in  slightly  flexible  needles, 
or  filaments,  or  in  tables  placed  on  each  other ;  not  magnetic. 

Chemical  characters.  Pa  rtially  melts,  and  becomes  magne- 
tic and  malleable. 

Composition.  Nickel,  with  a  small  portion  of  arsenic,  and 
cobalt,  which  seem  to  destroy  its  magnetism. 

Localities.  Hartz,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  near  Salzburg,  and 
Cornwall. 

It  is  also  found  in  nearly  every  meteoric  stone  which  has 
been  analyzed. 

Species  2.     ARSENICAL  NICKEL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  copper  red,  or  yellowish  red ; 
acquires  a  dark  tarnish  by  exposure;  occurs  reticulated,  bo- 
tryoidal,  and  massive:  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal;  lustre, 
shining  metallic;  yields  with  difficulty  to  the  knife;  some- 
times gives  sparks  with  steel;  said  to  occur  in  four,  or  six- 
sided  prisms:  sp.  gr.  6.60  to  7.70. 

Chemical  characters.  Gives  out  arsenical  vapours,  and 
melts  with  difficulty  into  a  scoria,  interspersed  with  metallic 
globules  Forms  a  green  solution  in  warm  nitric  acid. 

•Composition.     Nickel  44.2 ;  arsenic  54.7;  iron,  lead,  and 
sulphur,  in  small  portions. — Stromeyer. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  native 
copper,  but  copper  is  malleable,  and  does  not  emit  arsenical 
vapou  rs.  From  py ritous  copper,  it  may  be  known  by  its  garlic 
odour,  and  its  difficult  reduction. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  with  the  ores  of  cobalt,  cop- 
per, and  silver. 

Localities.  Saxony,  Bohemia,  France,  Spain,  and  Corn- 
wall. 

U.  S.  Chatham,  Conn.,  in  a  hornblende  rock,  associated 
with  cobalt. — Torrey.  Frederic  County,  Md. 

What  is  the  colour  of  pure  nickel? — fs  nickel  a  malleable,  or  a  brittle 
metal  ?— Is  th;s  an  abundant  nieta!  ? — Is  nickel  magnetic,  or  not  ? — Where 
is  nickel  found  ?— What  are  the  colours  of  arsenical  nickel  ? — What  is  the 
composition  of  arsenical  nickel  ? 
23* 


270  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Species  3.     ARSENITE  OF  NICKEL. 

External  characters.  Colours,  apple,  or  grass  green,  and 
greenish  white  ;  occurs  in  the  state  of  a  powder  adhering  to, 
and  coating  other  minerals,  and  particularly  arsenical  nickel ; 
also,  more  or  less  compact,  and  of  a  fine  apple  green  colour ; 
opake,  or  feebly  translucent. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  and  reducible  with  borax,  to 
the  metallic  state,  exhaling  a  strong  odour  of  arsenic.  Dis- 
solves in  acids  without  effervescence. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  nickel  37.4;  arsenious  acid  37; 
water  24.3;  oxide  of  iron  1.1  ;  sulphuric  acid  0.2. — Stro- 
meyer. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  carbonate  of  copper,  which  it 
sometimes  resembles,  effervesces  with  acids,  and  turns  black 
when  heated.  The  oxide  of  bismuth  is  easily  reduced,  and 
soon  evaporated,  by  the  blow  pipe. 

Species  4.     PIMELITE. 

Externa^  characters.  Colours,  apple  green,  or  greenish 
yellow ;  occurs  in  crusts,  or  small  indurated  masses  ;  fracture, 
and  texture,  earthy ;  lustre  glimmering,  or  dull ;  soft,  unctu- 
ous to  the  touch. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  dark  gray,  and 
loses  a  part  of  its  weight. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  nickel  15.62;  silex  35;  alumine 
5.10;  lime  0.40;  magnesia  1.25;  water  37.91. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Silesia,  in  several  places,  where  it  is  associated 
with  chrysoprase,  in  veins  traversing  serpentine. 

U.  S.  New  Fane,  N.  H.  colour  apple  green;  envelops 
chrysoprase.  Discovered  by  Mr.  Field. 

GENUS  9. — COBALT. 

Colour,  when  pure,  grayish  white,  with  a  tinge  of  copper 
red;  lustre,  approaching  brilliant;  melting  point,  130° 
Wedgewood ;  brittle,  and  reducible  to  powder  in  a  mortar ; 
.not  liable  to  oxidate  on  exposure  to  the  air,  or  if  kept  under 
water:  sp.  gr.  8.7. 

Cobalt  has  not  been  found  in  the  native  state. 

Uses.  Cobalt,  in  its  metallic  state,  has  not  been  applied  to 
any  use;  but  in  the  state  of  an  oxide,  it  is  an  article  of  consid- 
erable consequence  in  the  arts.  Zaffree  is  an  impure  oxide  of 
cobalt,  which,  when  fused  with  a  certain  quantity  of  glass, 
forms  smalt.  Smalt  is  of  a  deep  and  rich  blue  colour,  and  is 

What  is  the  colour  of  cobalt?— Is  cobalt  found  in  its  native  state1? 


MINERALOGY.  271 

the  substance  which  gives  the  blue  colour  to  china-ware,  to 
enamel,  glass,  porcelain,  &c.  Paper,  and  linen,  also,  receive 
their  bluish  tinge  from  smalt. 

The  name,  cobalt,  according  to  Beckmann,  comes  from 
cobalus,  a  title  which  the  German  miners  gave  to  an  imaginary 
spirit,  which  they  formerly  believed  haunted  certain  mines. 
This  name  was  given  to  the  ores  of  cobalt,  because,  like  an 
evil  spirit,  they  thwarted  the  hopes  of  the  miners,  by  raising 
great  expectations  when  nothing  in  fact  was  to  be  realized, 
the  uses  of  cobalt  being  then  entirely  unknown.  It  was  once 
customary,  therefore,  says  the  same  author,  to  introduce  into 
the  church  service,  a  prayer,  "that  God  would  protect  miners, 
and  their  works,  from  kobalts,  and  spirits." 

Its  uses  as  a  colouring  matter,  were  discovered  in  about 
1640. 

Species  1.     ARSENICAL  COBALT. 

External  characters.  Colour,  tin,  or  silver  white,  tarnished 
externally  grayish,  or  reddish ;  occurs  amorphous,  arbores- 
cent, reticulated,  stalactical,  and  crystallized  in  the  forms  of 
cubes,  and  octohedrons,  with  their  varieties  ;  crystals  often  ex- 
hibit cracks,  and  convex  surfaces ;  lustre,  glistening  and 
metallic ;  yields  with  difficulty  to  the  knife ;  brittle :  sp. 
gr.  7.3. 

Chemical  characters,  Before  the  blow  pipe,  it  gives  out  a 
copious  arsenical  vapour,  on  the  first  impression  of  the  heat ; 
it  melts  only  partially,  and  that  with  great  difficulty,  and  is 
not  attractable  by  the  magnet;  on  the  addition  of  borax,  it 
immediately  melts  into  a  gray  metallic  globule,  colouring  the 
borax  of  a  deep  blue. — Aiken.  In  the  flame  of  a  candle,  it 
emits  arsenical  vapours. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  present  species,  differs  from 
gray  cobalt,  in  being  of  a  more  compact,  or  granular  texture, 
instead  of  being  lamellar ;  and  in  emitting  the  odour  of  arse- 
nic, when  exposed  to  the  flame  of  a  candle.  From  arsenical 
iron,  it  differs,  in  giving  a  blue  colour  to  borax,  and  from  an- 
timonial  silver  by  the  same  test,  and  also  by  its  garlic  odour, 
which  the  silver  does  not  emit. 

Composition.  Cobalt  44 ;  arsenic  55 ;  sulphur  0.50. — 
Klaproth. 

Variety  1.     GRAY  ARSENICAL  COBALT. 
External  characters.     Colour,  tin  white,  with  a  tinge  of 

What  are  the  uses  of  cobalt? — What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  ar- 
senical cobalt  1 — What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  arsenical  cobalt  7 


272  INTRODUCTION  TO 

copper  red;  occurs  dentritic,  botryoidal,  and  crystallized  in 
rubes  and  octohedrons,  variously  truncated,  and  perfectly  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  sulphuret  of  iron  :  structure  lamellar  ;  clea- 
vage, parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  cube;  yields  with  difficulty 
to  the  knife;  not  brittle;  lustre  metallic,  shining:  sp.  gr. 
G.33  to  G.45. 

Chemical  characters.  Turns  black,  and  as  it  grows  red  hot, 
emits  arsenical  fumes,  and  is  finally  reduced  to  a  metallic  glo- 
bule, which  is  magnetic. — Phillips. 

Composition.  Cobalt  33.1;  arsenic  43.5;  sulphur  20.  lj 
iron  3.2. — Stromeyer. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  marks  of  distinction,  between 
this  variety  and  the  species,  has  already  been  pointed  out. 
All  the  ores  of  cobalt  are  easily  distinguished  from  other  min- 
erals, by  the  deep  blue  they  give  to  borax. 

The  present  species  and  its  variety,  are  the  ores  chiefly 
wrought  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  cobalt,  for  commercial 
purposes. 

Arsenical  cobalt  occurs  in  veins,  traversing  primitive  rocks, 
associated  with  nickel,  bismuth,  silver,  arsenic,  and  copper. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  and  near  Dartmoor,  in  England. 
Tunaberg,  in  Sweden,  dueerback,  in  Silesia.  Norway, 
Sweden,  Freyberg,  Marienberg,  and  Annaberg,  in  Saxony. 

U.  S.  Chatham,  Conn.,  in  a  hornblende  and  mica-slate 
rock.  This  mine  was  wrought  50  years  since,  and  aban- 
doned. Another  attempt  has  also  been  made  within  a  few 
years,  but  the  ore  wras  found  too  poor  to  make  it  profitable, 
and  it  is  again  abandoned. 

Nearly  all  the  zaffre  and  smalt,  used  in  commerce,  come 
from  Saxony,  where  the  cobalt  mines  have  been  long  wrought, 
with  great  profit. 

Species  4.     ARSENIATE  OF  COBALT. 

External  characters.  Colours,  crimson  red,  peach  bios 
som  red,  cochineal  red,  and  sometimns  pearl  gray,  or  greenish 
gray ;  occurs  in  botryoidal,  and  reniform  masses,  also  invest- 
ing, earthy,  slaprgy,  and  in  acicular,  radiating',  or  diverging 
crystals;  crystals  translucent ;  massive,  cpake  and  dull;  soft; 
yields  to  the  knife,  and  sometimes  to  the  nail  ;  thin  lamina?, 
flexible :  sp.  gr.  2.9. 

Chemical  characters.  Emits  copious  arsenical  fumes,  and 
tinges  borax  smalt  blue. 

What  is  said  of  gray  arsenical  cobalt  1 — What  are  the  colours  of  arseniatt 
of  cobalt  7 


MINERALOGY.  273 

Composition.  Oxide  of  cobalt  39 ;  arsenic  acid  37 ;  water 
22. — Bucholz. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  blue  colour  it  gives  to  borax 
will  distinguish  it  from  red  oxide  of  copper^  the  red  oxide  of 
iron,  and  the  sulphuret  of  mercury. 

It  occurs  in  veins,  traversing  rocks  of  various  ages,  aftd  in 
beds.  It  may  be  considered  a  common  ore  of  cobalt,  and 
sometimes  occurs  in  sufficient  quantities  for  the  manufacture 
of  smalt. 

Localities.  Schneeberg  and  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  Thurin- 
gia,  Bieber,  in  Hessia. 

U.  S.  Chatham,  Conn.,  of  a  peach  blossom  red,  in  crusts, 
disseminated  in  felspar. —  Torrey. 

GENUS  x. — IRON. 

Of  all  metals,  this  is  the  most  universally  diffused,  and  of 
the  greatest  use  to  man. 

Its  ores  are  very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  very  beau- 
tiful and  highly  interesting.  The  colour,  and  many  of  the  pro- 
perties of  pure  iron,  are  too  generally  known  to  require  any 
description.  In  its  soft  state,  it  is  one  of  the  most  ductile  of 
all  the  metals,  and  in  the  form  of  steel  it  is  the  hardest  of  all 
metallic  bodies.. 

In  general  the  ores  of  iron  are  easily  detected  by  their  mag- 
netic property.  Many  of  them,  as  the  oxides  and  sulphurets, 
which  are  not  magnetic,  in  their  original  state,  become  so  on 
being  submitted  to  the  blow  pipe  on  charcoal,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  tallow. 

The  specific  gravity  of  pure  iron  is  7.7. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  steel  gray,  approaching 
that  of  platina;  occurs  massive,  reticulated  and  cellular;  frac- 
ture hackly;  malleable;  magnetic:  not  easily  oxidated ;  has 
rarely  occurred  in  octahedral  crystals:  sp.  ST.  7.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Dissolves  with  effervescence  in  all 
the  strong  acids.  Its  solutions  strike  a  black  colour,  with 
tincture  of  nut-galls. 

Composition.  (From  Saxony.)  Iron  92.50 ;  lead  6 ;  cop- 
per 1.5. — Klaproth. 


What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  arseniate  of  cobalt  ? — What  metal 
is  most  universally  diffused,  and  of  the  greatest  use  to  man  1 — What  are 
the  chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of  iron? 


274  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Localities.  Near  Grenoble,  in  France,  mingled  with 
quartz  and  clay.  Near  Steinback,  in  Saxony,  in  a  gangue 
of  garnets. 

U.  S.     Guilford  County,  N.  C.     Canaan,  Conn. 

Variety  1.     METEORIC  NATIVE  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  steel  gray,  usually  cov* 
ered  with  a  coat  of  what  appears  to  be  brown  oxide  of  iron ; 
occurs  massive,  globular,  and  rarely  in  octohedral  crystals  3 
lustre  metallic:  texture  compact,  or  porous;  malleable:  sp. 
gr.  6.48  to  7.57. 

Composition,  (Siberian.)  Metallic  iron  98.5 ;  nickel  1.5. 

Nearly  every  specimen  of  native  meteoric  iron  which  has 
been  examined,  has  been  found  to  contain  nickel  in  small  pro- 
portions, as  from  1.5  to  10  per  cent. 

Masses  of  meteoric  iron  have  been  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  world. 

Professor  Pallas,  in  his  travels,  states  that  he  found  on  the 
top  of  a  mountain  in  Siberia,  a  mass  of  native  iron  weighing 
1680  pounds.  It  was  malleable  and  flexible.  The  inhabitants 
reported  ta  him,  that  it  fell  from  the  sky. 

A  mass,  now  in  the  imperial  cabinet  of  Vienna,  came  from 
Agram,  in  Croatia.  It  was  seen  by  the  inhabitants  to  fall 
from  the  air,  and  is  said  to  have  appeared  like  a  globe  of  fire. 
This  event  happened  in  1751. 

In  the  province  of  Tucuman,  in  South  America,  in  the  midst 
of  a  large  plain,  Don  Rubin  de  Celis  describes  a  mass  of  na- 
tive iron,  weighing  about  30,000  pounds.  It  had  an  irregular 
indented  surface,  and  internally  presented  many  cavities.  It 
contains  10  per  cent,  of  nickel. 

A  mass  found  in  Prussia  is  said  to  have  weighed  1,600 
pounds. 

A  mass  found  at  Bithborg,  in  France,  is  mentioned  by  Col. 
Gibbs.  It  weighed,  by  estimation,  about  2,500  pounds.  In 
some  parts,  it  is  so  hard  as  to  give  fire  with  steel. 

A  mass,  now  in  the  cabinet,  at  New-Haven,  was  found  near 
Red  river,  in  Louisiana.  Its  surface  is  covered  by  a  dark 
brown  crust,  and  is  deeply  indented.  It  is  very  compact  and 
malleable.  This  mass  weighs  upwards  of  3,000  pounds.  In 
its  interior,  Col.  Gibbs  discovered  octohedral  crystals  of  iron, 
the  largest  of  which  is  half  an  inch  long. 


What  is  meteoric  native  iron  ? — What  is  said  of  masses  of  meteoric  na- 
tive iron  2 


MINERALOGY.  27 

Capt.  Ross  mentions  a  mass  of  native  iron  which  exists  ir 
West  Greenland.  The  esquirnaux  have  made  knives  of  it 
It  contains  3  per  cent,  of  nickel. 

Other  maa&es  of  the  same  metal  have  been  discovered  in 
various  parts  of  the  globe.  That  of  Croatia,  however,  seems 
to  be  the  only  one  concerning  which  there  is  any  direct  proof 
of  its  having  fallen  from  the  atmosphere.  But  the  similarity 
of  composition,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  most,  if 
not  all  of  these  masses  have  been  found,  as  their  insulation, 
peculiar  composition,  and  their  situation  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  seem  to  indicate  that  they  owe  their  origin  to  a  common 
cause,  and  that  they  must  have  fallen  from  the  atmosphere  at 
various  and  uncertain  periods. 

Species  2.     ARSENICAL  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  tin  white,  with  a  shade  of  yel- 
low ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  crystallized ;  form, 
the  right  rhombic  prism,  either  simple,  or  terminated  by  dihe- 
dral summits  ;  also  modified  by  truncation,  on  the  edges  of  the 
summits — on  each  of  the  obtuse  angles,  or  otherwise;  lustre 
shining,  metallic  ;  fracture  granular ;  hard ;  brittle ;  gives  fire 
with  steel,  the  sparks  being  attended  with  a  little  train  of  white 
smoke;  when  struck,  gives  the  odour  of  garlic:  sp.  gr.  6.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  volumes  of  white  ar- 
senical smoke,  the  residue  being  magnetic  iron. 

Composition.     Arsenic  54.55;  iron  45.46. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  arsenical,  and  gray 
cobalt,  but  these  both  tinge  borax  smalt  blue.  It  also  may  re- 
semble sulphuret  of  iron,  and  antimonial  silver,  but  neither 
of  these  emit  the  garlic  fumes. 

It  is  found  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  as  gneiss,  mica-slate, 
and  granite  ;  where  it  occurs  in  veins,  or  is  disseminated. 

Localities.     Its  foreign  localities  are  numerous. 

U.  S.  Warwick,  Orange  County,  N.  Y.  Near  Boston, 
Mass.  Chatham,  Conn.  Paris,  Maine.  Franconia,  N.  H. 
in  gneiss.  Worcester,  Mass.  Munroe,  Conn.,  with  native 
bismuth,  and  maifram. 

Species  3.     SULPHURET  OF  IRON.  COMMON  PYRITES. 

External  characters.  Colour,  bronze  yellow,  passing  into 
brass  yellow,  and  steel  gray ;  occurs  crystallized,  capillary, 
cellular,  massive,  and  disseminated ;  form  the  cube,  octohe- 

Why  is  it  supposed,  that  these  masses  of  iron  fell  from  the  atmosphere? 
— What  is  the  colour  of  arsenical  iron  ?— What  are  the  distinctive  charac 
ters  of  arsenical  iron  ? — What  are  the  colours  of  sulphuret  of  iron  1 


276 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


dron,  dodecahedron  Avith  pentagonal  faces,  and  the  icosahe- 
dron,  \vith  trapezoidal  faces,  with  their  modifications  and  va- 
rieties; cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of  an  hexahedron  and 
octohedron  ;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  brilliant,  metallic; 
crystals  imbedded,  and  implanted;  hard,  brittle:  sp.  gr.  4.8. 
'Fig.  161. 


Fig.  161.  A  cube,  the  primitive  form,  and  one 
of  the  most,  common  figures  under  which  it  occurs. 
This  is  often  truncated  on  all  its  solid  angles. 


Fig.  162. 


Fig.  162. 
nal  faces. 


The  dodecahedron,  with  pentago- 


Fig.  163. 


Fig.  163.     The  octohedron,  truncated  on  all  its 
solid  angles. 


Fig.  164.    A  solid,  bounded  by  twenty  trian- 
gular faces. 


Hauy  has  enumerated  a  great  variety  of  other  modifications, 
some  by  truncation,  others  by  bevelment. 

Sulphuret  of  iron  is  often  a  very  beautiful  mineral,  the 
crystals  being  a'j  perfect  in  shape  as  could  be  formed  by  the 
most  skilful  lapidary,  and  the  truncations  perfectly  symmetri- 
cal, together  with  a  surface  that  resembles  burnished  gold. 
They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  a  mustard  seed,  to  two 
inches,  or  even  more,  in  diameter. 

Chemical  character.  Fusible,  with  a  strong  odour  of  sul- 
phur, into  a  globule,  which  is  magnetic. 

Composition.     Iron  47.85  ;  sulphur  52. 15. — Hatchett. 

Distinctive  characters.      It  has  often  been  taken  for  gold, 


What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  sulphuret  of  iron? 


MINERALOGY.  277 

but  gold  is  malleable;  iron  pyrites  is  brittle.  It  differs  from 
sulphuret  of  copper  in  being-  so  hard  as  not  to  yield  to  the 
knife ;  pyritous  copper  yields  to  the  knife,  and  does  not  yield 
a  magnetic  globule.  Arsenical  iron  emits  arsenical  fumes, 
wnile  iron  pyrites  emits  those  of  sulphur. 

Variety  \.     RADIATED  SULPHURET  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  bronze  yellow,  passing  into 
steel  gray,  often  variegated ;  occurs  in  masses,  of  a  globular, 
botryoidal,  or  reniforrn  shape,  composed  of  fibrous  crystals, 
radiating  from  the  centre,  and  terminating  on  the  surface  of 
the  mass;  fracture  fibrous  ;  lustre  brilliant. 

These  masses  commonly  fall  into  a  state  of  decomposition, 
if  exposed  to  the  air,  as  in  cabinets;  in  which  case  they  crack 
in  various  directions,  and  become  covered  with  a  white  efflo- 
rescence, which  will  be  found  on  touching  it  with  the  tongue 
to  be  sulphate  of  iron,  or  copperas. 

Variety  2.     HEPATIC  SULPHURET  OF  IRON.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  liver  brown  ;  internally  pale 
brass  yellow,  inclining  to  steel  gray  ;  occurs  in  hexahedral, 
and  octohedral  crystals,  also  stalactical,  botryoidal,  and  amor- 
phous ;  lustre  glimmering. 

This  variety  presents  most  of  the  forms  of  iron  pyrites. 

Its  colour  seems  to  arise  from  a  peculiar  kind  of  decompo- 
sition, the  nature  of  which  is  not  well  understood,  and  by 
which  its  colour  is  changed,  and  its  lustre  disappears,  without 
any  change  of  form. 

It  is  found  in  veins  in  primitive  rocks. 

U.  S.  Near  Sparta,  N.  J.  Staten  Island,  and  at  Antho- 
ny's nose,  N.  Y. 

Arsenical  sulphuret  of  iron.  Colour,  steel  gray,  paler  than 
common  pyrites ;  it  yields  arsenical,  as  well  as  sulphureous 
vapours. 

Auriferovs  sulphuret  of  iron.  Colour,  deep  yellow ;  oc- 
curs in  grains  and  cubic  crystals;  contains  a  small  quantity 
of  gold,  which  seems  to  be  in  a  state  of  simple  mixture  with 
the  pyrites. 

Schniferous  sulphuret  of  iron.  Colour,  pale  yellow ;  oc- 
curs in  granular  masses. 

Pseudomorphous  sulphuret  of  iron.  It  occurs  in  the  crevi- 
ces of  wood,  arid  minerals,  and  also  in  the  cavities  of  organic 

*  From  hepar,  Lat.  liver;  because  it  is  of  a  liver  colour. 

How  is  sulphuret  of  iron  distinguished  from  other  minerals  ? — What  are 
the  varieties  of  sulphuret  of  iron  1 
24 


278  INTRODUCTION  TO 

remains,  and  takes  its  form  from  that  of  the  cavity  in  which 
it  is  found. 

Uses.  Sulphuret  of  iron  is  a  very  abundant  and  universally 
distributed  ore.  It,  however,  is  seldom,  if  ever,  employed  for 
the  making-  of  iron,  but  is  chiefly  used  for  the  extraction  of 
the  sulphate  of  iron  or  copperas,  by  decomposition. 

For  this  purpose,  the  ore,  being  raised  from  the  earth,  is 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  moistened.  By  a  natural  process,  the 
sulphur  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  is  converted 
into  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  then  unites  to  the  iron,  and 
forms  a  sulphate,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  a  greenish 
white  crust  on  the  decomposing  pyrites.  The  copperas  is 
then  obtained  by  washing,  or  lixiviation,  and  subsequent  crys- 
tillization. 

In  the  United  States,  manufactories  of  the  sulphate  of  iron 
have  been  established  in  Tennessee.  In  Maryland,  about 
twenty  miles  from  Baltimore.  In  Ohio,  near  Zanesville,  and 
on  the  Muskingum  river,  and  at  Steubenville.  *  In  Vermont, 
at  StrafTord  and  Shrewsbury.  At  Stratford,  about  one  thou- 
sand persons  are  employed  in  the  several  departments  of  this 
manufactory,  and  during  the  last  year,  (1825,)  seven  hundred 
tons  of  copperas  have  been  produced. 

SULPHURIC   ACID. 

This  acid  oecurs  in  many  places  mixed  with  water,  and  is 
produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  native  sulphurets  of  iron. 

The  sour  spring,  which  is  situated  in  the  town  of  Byron, 
Genesee  county,  N.  Y.  is  a  remarkable  locality.  The  acid 
is  produced  from  a  hillock,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  spring,  which 
contains  abundance  of  sulphuret  of  iron  in  small  grains. 

This  acid,  produced  in  the  same  manner,  occurs  in  several 
other  places,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  island 
of  Java,  an  acid  lake  is  said  to  exist  in  the  crater  of  an  ancient 
volcano,  and  in  which  no  fish  can  live. 

Species  4.     MAGNETIC  SULPHURET  or  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  bronze  yellow  and 
copper  red;  occurs  massive;  rarely  in  six-sided  prisms;  struc- 
ture lamellar;  turns  brown  by  exposure:  obedient  to  the 
magnet. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  the  sulphureous  odour 
into  a  magnetic  globule. 

Composition.     Iron  63.5 ;  sulphur  36.5. — Hatchett. 

What  are  the  uses  of  sulphuret  of  iron?— How  is  sulphuret  of  iron 
manufactured? 


MINERALOGY.  279 

This  variety  contains  less  iron  and  more  sulphur  than  the 
other  species.  Its  magnetic  property,  Hauy  supposes,  may 
depend  on  its  containing  a  portion  of  iron  in  its  pure  state,  and 
not  united  to  the  sulphur.  In  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Hatchett, 
iron  combing  with  less  than  37  per  cent  of  sulphur,  may 
not  only  affect  the  needle,  but  become  a  permanent  magnet, 
which  is  the  case  with  the  present  species. 

Localities.  Hartz,  Galloway,  in  Scotland,  and  various 
other  places. 

U.  S.  Brookfield  and  Huntington,  Conn.  Near  Boston, 
Mass.  Brunswick,  Maine. 

Species  5.     MAGNETIC  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black;  occurs  crystal- 
lized, lamelliform,  and  massive;  form  the  regular  octohedron, 
dodecahedron  with  rhombic  faces,  cube  and  four-sided  prism, 
lerminated  by  four-sided  pyramids;  all  subject  to  a  variety  of 
truncations:  structure  imperfectly  lamellar* "fracture  uneven; 
lustre  shining  or  glimmering;  faces  often  striated:  occurs  also 
in  thin  plates  and  in  the  state  of  sand :  sp.  gr.  4.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  brown,  but  is  infusible.  In- 
soluble in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.  Peroxide  of  iron  71.86;  protoxide  of  iron 
28.14. — Berzelius. 

This  species  is  al \vays  attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  some- 
times attracts  iron  which  has  not  been  magnetized ;  it  then  is 
called  native  magnet,  or  loadstone. 

In  other  instances,  iron  is  said  to  be  magnetic  when  it  dis- 
turbs the  polarity  of  the  magnetic  needle,  without  possessing 
the  power  of  imparting  the  same  quality  ;  but  the  native  mag- 
netic iron,  not  only  attracts  its  own  particles,  but  those  of  iron, 
which  before  were  not  magnetic,  and  has  the  power  of  im- 
parting this  property,  thus  forming  the  artificial  magnet. 

The  loadstone  is  chiefly  found  in  primitive  countries,  and 
sometimes  constitutes  large  masses,  or  even  beds. 

According  to  Patrin,  there  occurs  in  Sweden,  and  Switzer- 
land, whole  mountains  composed  of  magnetic  iron,  immense 
masses  of  which  are  found  to  be  native  magnets.  Blocks  of 
40lbs.  weight,  he  says,  would  carry  200lbs.  of  iron,  and  some- 
times pieces  were  found  which  would  lift  25  times  their  own 
weight  of  iron. 

The  celebrated  Bergman  also  describes  a  hill  of  the  same 
kind  of  iron  ore,  which  he  saw  at  Talberg,  in  Swedish  Lap- 

Wliat  is  the  colour  of  magnetic  oxide  of  iron  1 — What  is  loadstone  ? 


2SO  INTRODUCTION  TO 

laud.  It  is  a  league  in  circuit,  and  400  feet  high,  and  cotl' 
sists,  to  appearance,  solely  of  black  iron  ore,  cemented  into  a 
hard  and  solid  mass,  with  quartz. — Pinker  tori  s  Petrology. 

From  its  external  appearance  the  native  magnet  does  not 
differ  from  common  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  but  qp  trial  it  will 
be  found  to  attract  iron  filings,  and  to  possess  polarity. 

U.  S.  Goshen,  Penn.  On  the  river  Wachitta,  Arkansas 
Territory.  Topsham,  Maine. 

Variety  1.     SANDY  MAGNETIC  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black  ;  occurs  in  small 
dodecahedral,  and  octohedral  crystals,  and 'in  minute  grains 
constituting  iron  sand  ;  strongly  magnetic ;  powder  black. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  unalterable  by  the 
blow  pipe. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  85.50 ;  oxide  of  titanium  14; 
oxide  of  manganege  0.50. — Klaproth. 

This  variety  being  sifted,  is  in  common  use  for  desk,  or 
writing  sand. 

Localities.  U.  S.  West-Haven,  Conn.,  on  the  beach  of 
the  sea  shore.  It  very  obviously  proceeds  from  the  disinte- 
gration of  the  chlorite  slate  contiguous  to  the  beach. — Silli- 
man.  On  Block  Island,  R.  I.  Gill,  Mass.  Also  in  Mary- 
land, Ohio,  and  Virginia. 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron  is  found  very  abundantly  in  foreign 
countries,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  mountain  ore,.  It 
furnishes  the  best  bar  iron,  and  is  that  from  which  the  Swe- 
dish steel  is  made.  It  yields  from  50  to  90  per  cent,  of  me- 
tallic iron. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Franconia,  Grafton  County,  N.  H.  The 
bed  is  from  5  to  8  feet  thick,  and  is  contained  in  gneiss. 
Beautiful  octohedral,  and  dodecahedral  crystals  are  common. 
It  also  yields  the  compact  variety.  This  bed  is  explored  for 
smelting.  Topsham,  Lincoln  County,  Maine.  Some  of  the 
crystals  are  two  inches  in  diameter. — Cleveland.  Sucka- 
sunny,  N.  J.,  where  the  bed  has  been  worked  to  the  depth  of 
100  feet.  The  ore  from  the  lowest  part  is  not  magnetic  until 
it  has  been  exposed  to  the  light  and  air. — Gibbs.  Near  Lake 
Champlain,  N.  Y.  Also  in  the  Highlands,  and  at  Crown 
Point. — Gibbs.  Williamstown,  Middlefield,  and  Woburn, 
Mass.  Somerset,  Vt.  In  various  places  in  Pennsylvania,  &c. 

What  is  said  of  the  quantities  of  magnetic  ox:de  of  iron? — What  is  said 
of  sandy  magnetic  oxide  of  iron  ? — What  is  the  common  name  for  this 
species  ? 


MINERALOGY.  281 

Species  6.     SPECULAR  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  with  the  suiface 
highly  polished,  and  often  tarnished  azure  blue,  green,  or  red, 
sometimes  resembling  tempered  steel,  and  sometimes  passing 
into  blackish  blue;  streak  cherry  red,  or  reddish  brown;  oc- 
curs crystallized  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  among  which  are 
the  pyramidal  octohedron,  with  its  modifications;  the  pyra- 
midal dodecahedron,  with  its  summits  replaced ;  the  hexahe- 
dral  table,  with  the  edges  replaced,  &c. ;  primary,  the  slight!} 
acute  rhomb;  structure  lamellar ;  cross  fracture  conchoidal ; 
lustre  brilliant,  metallic;  faces  of  the  crystals  often  striated; 
slightly  attracted  by  the  magnet:  sp.  gr.  5.52. 
Pig.  165. 

Fig.  1 65.  A  figure  bounded  by  24  faces,  of  which 
six  are  isosceles  triangles,  twelve  scalene  triangles, 
and  six  pentagons. 


The  beautiful  iridiscent  specimens,  which  come  from  the 
isle  of  Elba,  are  frequently  crystallized  in  the  above  form. 

The  present  species  often  occurs  in  groups  of  tabular  or 
lenticular  crystals,  implanted  edgewise,  or  intersecting  each 
other  so  as  to  form  cells  of  various  shapes.  Sometimes  the 
edges  only  appear  distinct,  forming  groups  resembling  the 
lancets  of  a  scarificator. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  reddish.  In- 
soluble in  acids. 

Composition.     Iron  69  ;  oxygen  31. — Hassenfraz. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  magnetic  oxide, 
m  yielding-  a  reel  powder,  that  of  the  magnetic  being  black. 
Gray  copper  and  galena  are  reduced  by  the  blow  pipe,  and 
are  not  at  all  magnetic. 

Some  of  the  most  splendid  specimens,  seen  in  cabinets,  be- 
long to  this  species.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  primitive  moun- 
tains, associated  with  magnetic  iron,  red  oxide  of  iron,  and 
quartz. 

Localities.  Elba  affords  the  finest  specimens,  wrhere  it  is 
very  abundant,  and  is  said  to  have  been  worked  as  a  mine, 
for  3000  years.  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  in  most 
other  countries. 

U.  S.     Near   Baltimore,   Md.     Near    Lake    Champlain, 

What  are  the  colours  of  specular  oxide  of  iron  ?— What  are  its  crystal- 
line forms  ?— What  is  said  of  the  beauty  of  this  species? 
24* 


282  INTRODUCTION  TO 

N.  Y.  Brighton,  and  Montague,  Mass.    Jamaica,  Vt.     Fow- 
ler, St.  Lawrence  County,  N   Y.     Havvley,  Mass. 

Variety  1.     VOLCANIC  SPECULAR  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

It  is  found  in  lava,  and  possibly,  also,  in  the  stones  used  in 
smelting  furnaces,  when  they  become  porous  and  partially 
disintegrated  by  the  heat.  The  writer  has  seen  some  beauti- 
ful crystals  of  specular  iron,  contained  in  a  micaceous  sand- 
stone, which  had  been  used  for  the  above  purpose,  and  which, 
to  all  appearance,  had  been  formed  by  particles  of  iron  from 
the  furnace. 

Variety  2.     MICACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black,  passing  into  steel 
gray  ;  when  turned  in  a  particular  direction  towards  the  light 
it  has  a  tinge  of  red ;  streak  and  powder  cherry  red  ;  translu- 
cent, in  thin  laminae,  when  it  appears  blood  red  ;  occurs  mas- 
sive, composed  of  thin  lamina?,  easily  separable ;  splits  into 
broad  pieces,  of  a  slaty  aspect ;  also  occurs  in  distinct  tabular 
crystals;  sometimes  a  little  unctuous  to  the  touch;  brittle: 
sp.  gr.  nearly  4. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  earthy  minerals,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently distinguished  by  its  weight,  colour,  and  lustre,  and 
from  the  other  ores  of  iron,  by  its  micaceous  structure. 

Specular  and  micaceous  iron,  are  found  in  primitive  rocks, 
among  the  other  ores  of  iron.  Sometimes  they  are  dissemi- 
nated in  the  other  ores,  and  sometimes  they  form  considerable 
beds  alone. 

Localities.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  Near  the  Raritan,  N.  J. 
Fort  Lee,  N.  Y.  Hawley,  Brighton,  and  Charlestown,  Mass. 
New  Stratford,  Conn.  Near  Belfast,  Maine.  Madison  Coun- 
ty, and  Washington  County,  Missouri.  In  the  latter  county, 
micaceous  iron  forms  a  ridge  from  500  to  600  feet  high,  and 
half  a  mile  long. — Schoolcraft. 

Species  7.     BROWN  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  blackish  brown,  or 
yellowish  brown;  occurs  stalactical,  nodular,  fibrous,  and 
amorphous ;  and  according  to  Mohs,  in  cubical  crystals  ;  pow- 
der, yellowish  brown;  seldom  magnetic:  sp.  gr.  3.44. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  reddish,  and  ac- 
quires the  magnetic  property. 

Composition.     Oxide  of  iron  85  ;  water '15. — Daubisson. 

What  is  the  form  of  micaceous  oxide  of  iron  ? — How  is  brown  oxide  of 
iron  described? 


MINERALOGY.  283 

Variety  1.     FIBROUS  BROWN  OXIDE  OF  IRON.     BROWN 

HAEMATITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brown,  yellowish,  or  black- 
ish brown;  on  the  outside,  often  varnished  or  glossed,  pre- 
cisely resembling  black  glazed  earthenware;  occurs  stalac- 
tical,  tuberous,  nodular  and  amorphous;  structure  fibrous, 
sometimes  parallel,  but  more  often  radiating,  or  diverging 
from  a  centre;  lustre,  silky  or  resinous;  yields  to  the  knife. 

This  variety  often  presents  very  curious  imitative  forms ; 
as  of  cylinders  of  the  size  of  a  pipe  stem,  many  inches  long, 
and  interwoven  into  a  sort  of  network;  also  of  the  branches 
of  trees,  or  of  coral,  or  bunches  of  grapes,  &c. 

This  ore  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.     It  is  found  in  every  country  of  Europe. 

U.  S.  Messersburg,  Jenkintown,  and  Lancaster,  Penn. 
Gallatin  County,  Illinois.  Lawrence  County,  Arkansas  Ter- 
ritory. Burlington  County,  N.  J.  Staten  Island,  N.  Y. 
Stalactical  and  mammillary,  often  with  a  shining  surface. — 
Pierce  and  Torrey.  Salisbury,  Conn.,  specimens  often  co- 
vered with  a  jet  black  shining  gloss,  like  the  black  glazed  tea- 
pots of  former  times.  Some  very  beautiful  specimens  come 
from  this  locality.  Bennington,  and  Monkton,  Vt.  That  of 
Bennington  yields  33  per  cent,  of  iron. — Hall. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  as  an  iron  ore,  and  yields  from  30  to 
60  per  cent,  of  the  metal 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  BROWN  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  olive  brown,  passing  into 
blackish  brown ;  occurs  massive,  stalactical,  cellular  and 
amorphous  ;  streak  and  powder  yellowish  brown  :  lustre  none ; 
structure  compact,  sometimes  slaty,  but  never  fibrous ;  frac- 
ture conchoidal,  or  earthy,  yields  to  the  knife :  sp.  gr.  3.5 
to  3.7. 

Composition.  Iron  82  ;  water  11.3;  oxide  of  manganese 
0.3;  silex  2.6. — Daubisson. 

Distinctive  characters:  It  is  distinguished  from  the  haema- 
tite, by  its  compact  structure. 

it  usually  occurs  with  the  fibrous  variety,  into  which  it  gra- 
dually passes. 

Locality.  Blue  Ridge,  Md.  It  occurs  in  stalagmites,  or 
very  beautifully  dentritic,  resembling,  in  large  masses,  a  grove 
of  trees. — Hay  den. 

What  use  is  made  of  brown  oxide  of  iron  ?—  What  is  said  of  the  imitative 
forms  of  brown  haematite  1 


284  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Uses.  It  is  explored  as  an  iron  mine,  and  is  said  to  yield 
about  50  per  cent,  of  metal. 

Variety  3.     OCHERY  BROWN  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  brown,  or  yellowish  ; 
occurs  massive,  of  an  earthy  aspect;  soils  the  fingers ;  friable. 

Composition.     Iron  83;  water  12;  silex  5. — Daubisson. 

It  is  found  among  bog  iron  ore. 

Variety  4.     UMBER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  olive  brown,  blackish  or  yel- 
lowish brown  ;  occurs  massive ;  lustre  none ;  fracture  con- 
choidal:  texture  earthy;  soils  very  much;  easily  broken ; 
adheres  strongly  to  the  tono-ue;  falls  to  pieces  in  water:  sp. 
gr.  2. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  48  ;  oxide  of  manganese  20 ; 
silex  13;  alumine  5 ;  water  14. — Phillips. 

Locality.     Cyprus.     It  is  used  as  a  paint. 

Species  8.     RED  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  reddish  brown  ;  streak  and 
powder,  blood  red,  or  brownish  red  ;  sometimes  slightly  mag 
netic;  yields  to  the  knife;  aspect  rather  earthy  than  metallic  • 
rarely  found  crystallized ;  opake ;  texture  fibrous,  or  com- 
pact :  sp.  gr.  3  to  5. 

Variety  1.  FIBROUS  RED  OXIDE  OF  IRON.    RED  HAEMATITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  brown,  and  brown- 
ish red,  or  steel  gray;  lustre  somewhat  metallic;  receives  a 
polish;  streak  and  powder,  nearly  blood  red;  occurs  amor- 
phous, stalactical,  botryoidal,  and  in  concretions ;  structure 
distinctly  fibrous;  fibres,  particularly  of  the  stalactical,  ra- 
diate from  the  centre,  or  run  parallel,  resembling  the  grain  of 
wood  ;  fracture  conchoidal  in  one  direction :  sp.  gr.  4.75. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  dark,  and  be- 
comes magnetic. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  90;  silex  2;  lime  1;  water 
3. — Daubisson. 

It  is  found  chiefly  in  primitive,  but  sometimes  in  secondary 
mountains. 

Localities.  It  is  found  in  several  European  countries,  as 
England,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  &c. 

U.  S.     Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn.     Kent,  Conn. 

Uses.  It  is  said  to  yield  the  best  of  iron,  particularly  for 
drawing  and  rolling.  It  is  also  used  for  polishing  buttons, 

What  is  the  composition  of  red  haematite  ? 

* 


MINERALOGY.  285 

under  the  name  of  blood-stone,  and  during  our  late  war  was 
in  great  demand,  and  sold  at  exceedingly  exorbitant  prices, 
for  this  purpose. 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  RED  OXIDE  OF  IRON 

External,  characters.  Colour,  brownish  red,  with  a  mixture 
of  steel  gray;  surface,  sometimes  steel  gray;  streak,  and 
powder,  blood  red ;  fracture  conchoidal  or  uneven  ;  lustre  a 
little  metallic;  occurs  massive,  slaty,  globular,  and  reniform; 
also  in  pseudomorphous  crystals,  generally  cubic,  with  trun- 
cated angles :  sp.  gr.  3.5  to  5. 

It  is  found  in  primitive,  and  secondary  rocks,  with  red  haem- 
atite, and  other  iron  ores. 

Localities.      U.  S.     On  Elk  river,  Tenn.,  very  hard,  and 
compact. — Schoolcraft.     Canton,  N.  Y. — Hall.     At  the  head 
of  Gasconade  river,  Missouri. 
Variety  3.     OCHERY  RED  OXIDE  OF  IRON.     RED  OCHRE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  blood  red,  passing  into 
yellowish,  or  brownish  red;  occurs  massive;  texture  com- 
pact, earthy;  soils  the  ringers,  but  is  not  unctuous;  friable: 
sp.  gr.  about  3. 

It  is  found  with  the  preceding  varieties,  and  occurs  in  many 
places  in  this  country. 

Uses.  It  is  sometimes  employed  as  a  pigment,  under  the 
name  of  Indian  red;  but  more  commonly,  it  is  believed,  under 
that  of  Spanish  brown. 

Species  9.     ARGILLACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  ash  gray,  bluish  brown,  and 
reddish  brown  ;  occurs  amorphous,  and  in  flat  tabular  masses  ; 
also  reniforrn,  globular,  and  pulverulent ;  fracture  uneven,  and 
earthy,  or  flat  conchoidal;  yields  easily  to  the  knife;  adheres 
to  the  tongue:  sp.  gr.  3.37. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  turns  black,  and  be- 
comes magnetic. 

Composition.  Protoxide  of  iron,  with  a  trace  of  manganese, 
43.26;  alumine  and  silex  20.78;  carbonic  acid  29.30;  car- 
bonaceous matter  2.67;  lime  1.87;  moisture  1. — Phillips. 

It  occurs  in  secondary  rocks,  and  is  found  in  most  coun- 
tries. 

Variety  1.     COLUMNAR  ARGILLACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.     Colour,  red,  brownish,  or  blackish 


What  are  the  uses  of  red  haematite  ?— What  are  the  varieties  of  red  oxido 
of  iron  ?— What  is  the  composition  of  argillaceous  oxide  of  iron  ? 


286  INTRODUCTION  TO 

red,  and  yellowish  red ;  occurs  in  masses,  composed  of  coJ- 
umnar  pieces,  fitting  each  other  like  grain,  tin  or  starch,  and 
sometimes  with  interstices  filled  with  bitumen,  or  calcareous 
spar;  texture  fine  grained,  earthy;  brittle;  adheres  to  the 
tongue;  sometimes  magnetic:  sp.  gr.  3  to  4.4. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  50;  water  13;  silex  30.5; 
alumine  7. — Brocchi. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Navesink  hills,  N.  J.  Long  Island, 
N.  Y.  Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass. 

It  is  not  common,  but  is  sometimes  explored  as  an  iron  mine. 

Variety  2.     PISIFORM  ARGILLACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  brown,  yellowish  brown,  or 
blackish  brown ;  occurs  in  small  globular  masses,  consisting 
of  concentric  layers  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  or  larger ;  brittle ; 
fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre,  resinous  at  the  circumference, 
but  dull  and  earthy  at  the  centre. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  48;  alumine  31;  silex  15: 
water  6. — Daubisson. 

It  is  found  in  clay,  and  soft  calcareous  deposites,  with  the 
bog  ore. 

Localities.  It  is  abundant  in  France  and  in  several  parts 
of  Switzerland.  It  is  also  found  in  England,  Franconia,  and 
Suabia. 

U.  S.  Pompton  plain,  and  other  places,  N.  J.  Staten  Isl- 
and, N.  Y.  Salisbury,  Windsor,  and  Hartford,  Conn. 

Uses.  It  is  explored  in  France,  and  Switzerland,  but  is 
said  not  to  yield  good  iron. 

Variety  3.  LENTICULAR  ARGILLACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brownish  red,  yellowish 
brown,  or  grayish  black  ;  occurs  in  lenticular  or  oblong  flat- 
tened masses,  of  various  sizes,  from  that  of  an  apple  seed  to 
that  of  a  butternut;  lustre  of  the  fracture,  somewhat  metallic; 
easily  broken  :  sp.  gr.  3  to  3.8. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  magnetic,  but  does  not 
easily  melt  alone ;  with  borax  melts  into  a  yellowish  green 
glass. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  64 ;  water  5  ;  alumine  23  ; 
silex  7.5. — Lampidius. 

Localities.  Franconia,  Bavaria,  Saltzburg,  Switzerland, 
France,  &c. 

*  From  its  resemblance  to  peas. 
What  are  the  varieties  of  argillaceous  oxide  of  iron  ? 


MINERALOGY.  28* 

U  S.  Ontario,  N.  Y.  in  an  alluvial  deposite,  which  alsa 
contains  fossil  shells. — Eaton. 

Uses.  It  is  sometimes  explored  as  an  iron  mine,  and  is  said 
to  yield  from  30  to  60  per  cent. 

Variety  4.     NODULAR  ARGILLACEOUS  OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  brown,  or  yellow, 
internally,  when  fresh  fractured;  occurs  in  nodules  of  various 
sizes,  from  that  of  a  nut,  to  that  of  a  man's  head ;  sometimes 
hollow  internally,  and  sometimes  contains  a  pulverulent  nu- 
cleus ;  fracture,  even,  earthy,  or  flat  conchoidal,  generally 
earthy  towards  the  centre;  texture  earthy,  or  compact,  to- 
wards the  circumference;  appears  to  be  composed  of  concen- 
tric layers  :  sp.  gr.  about  3 ;  in  the  hardest  parts  scarcely 
yields  to  the  knife. 

It  is  found  in  clay-slate,  antl  in  alluvial  deposites. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  cavity  in  the  centre  of  these  nodules, 
containing  some  small  loose  stones,  or  sand,  which  rattles  on 
being  shook.  The  ancients  supposed,  but  on  what  grounds 
we  do  not  know,  that  the  eagles  had  a.  habit  of  transporting 
these  balls  to  their  nests,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
laying  of  their  eggs.  Hence  they  were  called  Eagle  stones. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  it  forms  extensive 
beds.  The  nodules  are  composed  of  concentric  layers,  and 
frequently  contain  minute  crystals  of  sparry  iron. — Gilmor. 
Also  at  Bomb-shell  hill,  near  Bladensburg,  in  nodules  from  two 
to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  When  exposed  to  a  strong  heat 
they  burst  with  an  explosion. — Hay  den.  Near  Plymouth, 
Mass.  Nodules,  of  a  reddish  gray  colour,  externally,  with  a 
soft,  or  friable,  yellowish  nucleus,  occur  at  Northington,  Conn 
They  appear  to  be  formed  of  fine  sandstone. 

Species  10.     BOG  IRON  ORE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish,  brown,  brownish 
yellow,  and  reddish  gray ;  occurs  amorphous,  tuberous,  and 
cellular ;  fracture  earthy,  or  uneven ;  lustre  resinous,  or  dull ; 
often  friable ;  sometimes  resembles  scoria,  and  sometimes 
ochre ;  soils  the  fingers  :  sp.  gr.  2  to  3. 

Variety  1.     FRIABLE  BOG  ORE. 

It  occurs  in  masses,  sometimes  corroded  or  sinuous;  soils 
the  fingers ;  dull ;  appears  earthy  or  ochery. 

What  peculiarity  exists  with  respect  to  the  nodular  variety  of  this  spe 
cies  ?— What  is  said  of  bog  iron  ore? 


239  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  BOG  ORE. 

It  occurs  amorphous,  tuberous,  and  in  crusts;  fracture  con- 
choidal ;  lustre  resinous  ;  soft ;  yields  to  the  knife  ;  soils  the 
fingers. 

These  varieties,  to  which  some  add  Indurated,  occur  toge- 
ther, commonly  in  the  same  specimen.  They  are  found  in 
Jo\v  swampy  ground,  in  almost  every  section  of  country- 
Bog  ore  is  considered  of  the  most  recent  formation,  indeed 
it  is  supposed  to  be  deposited  every  day,  from  waters  contain- 
ing oxide  of  iron,  and  therefore  is  constantly  forming. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  for  the  extraction  of  iron,  and  yields 
from  30  to  60  per  cent,  of  metal. 

Species  I  [.     FRANKLINITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black  ;  powder  deep  red, 
or  reddish  brown;  occurs  in  granular  masses,  composed  of 
imperfect  crystals,  or  small  grains,  which  sometimes  exhibit 
the  planes  of  the  octohedron  ;  structure  lamellar:  aspect  simi- 
lar to  octohedral  iron  :  sp.  gr.  4.87;  magnetic. 

Chemical  characters.  Soluble  without  effervescence  in  hot 
muriatic  acid,  exhaling  a  slight  odour  of  chlorine.  Before 
the  blow  pipe,  the  zinc  is  volatilized,  leaving  a  hard  magnetic 
alloy  of  iron  and  manganese,  susceptible  of  a  polish. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  66;  oxide  of  zinc  17;  oxide 
of  manganese  16. — Berthier. 

Locality.  U.  S.  New  Jersey,  accompanied  by  the  red 
oxide  of  zinc,  and  yellowish  green  garnet.  It  is  mostly  im- 
bedded in  the  red  oxide  of  zinc. 

Species  12.     HYDROUS  OXIDE  or  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black,  internally  black- 
ish brown;  occurs  massive,  and  crystallized  ;  structure  of  the 
massive,  fibrous  and  radiating ;  crystals  very  minute,  the  ter- 
minations sometimes  appearing  like  velvet ;  also  occurs  in 
slender  stalactites,  composed  of  fibres  radiating  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference;  scratches  glass. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  80.25;  water  15;  silex  3.75. 
—  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  in  quartzose  geodes,  also 
near  Botallack,  Cornwall,  Siberia,  and  France. 

*  In  honour  of  Dr.  Franklin. 

What  use  is  made  of  the  bog  ore  ?— What  is  the  composition  of  Frank- 
Unite? 


MINERALOGY.  289 

Species  13.     CARBONATE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  wine  yellow,  yellowish 
brown,  or  grayish  yellow;  becomes  brownish  black  by  ex- 
posure; occurs  massive;  composed  of  crystalline,  foliated 
plates,  often  curved ;  structure  foliated  or  lamellar ;  lustre 
shining  vitreous ;  streak  white ;  translucent  when  recently 
broken ;  occurs  also  in  acute  rhomboids,  sometimes  with 
truncated  terminal  angles,  in  six-sided  crystals,  in  octohedrons, 
.  and  in  lenticular  crystals ;  crystals  often  adhere  by  thin  edges 
to  other  minerals,  or  are  found  in  groups,  or  druses  ;  yields  to 
the  knife  ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  an  obtuse  rhom- 
boid, which  is  the  primitive  form :  sp.  gr.  about  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  blackens  and  becomes 
magnetic.  Dissolves  slowly  in  nitric  acid,  with  slight  effer- 
vescence. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  58 ;  carbonic  acid  35  ;  oxide 
of  manganese  4.25  ;  magnesia  0.75  ;  lime  0.5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  the  earthy  minerals  which  it 
resembles,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  great  weight ;  from  other 
ores  of  iron  by  its  crystalline,  foliated  cleavage,  or  fracture ; 
and  from  blende,  which  it  often  very  nearly  resembles,  by  its 
yielding  magnetic  iron,  by  the  blow  pipe. 

On  being  exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  gradually  decomposed; 
first  the  colour  of  the  surface  becomes  brown,  or  black ;  af- 
terwards, also,  the  streak  is  changed  into  red  or  brown,  its 
hardness  and  specific  gravity  are  disminished,  and  even  the 
chemical  constitution  is  altered,  the  whole  being  converted 
into  hydrate  of  iron. — Mohs. 

It  occurs  abundantly,  in  some  countries,  in  veins  and  beds, 
chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  but  sometimes  in  secondary  ones. 
It  is  associated  with  the  other  ores  of  iron,  also  with  those  of 
copper,  and  lead,  and  with  calcareous  spar,  brown  spar,  &c. 

Localities.  Hesse,  Hartz,  and  Westphalia,  where  it  is 
worked  as  an  ore  of  iron.  France,  Germany,  and  Spain,  in 
abundance.  England  sparingly. 

U.  S.  Near  Baltimure,  Md.,  in  lenticular  crystals.  New 
Milford,  Conn.,  chiefly  in  foliated  masses,  but  sometimes  in 
obtuse  rhombs. — "  This  appears  to  be  the  only  locality  in  the 
United  States,  where  carbonate  of  iron  occurs  in  quantity." — 
Silliman. 

Species  14.     PHOSPHATE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  indigo  blue,  sometimes  nearly 

What  are  the  colours  of  carbonate  of  iron  ? — What  is  the  composition  of 
carbonate  of  iron? — How  is  carbonate  of  iron  distinguished? 
Qfi 


290  INTRODUCTION  TO 

black,  and  sometimes  greenish  blue  ;  occurs  crystallized,  mas- 
sive and  amorphous ;  form  of  the  primitive,  an  oblong  four- 
sided  prism,  which  is  also  the  form  under  which  it  often  ap- 
pears; crystals  subject  to  truncation.  It  also  occurs  in  six, 
eight,  or  twelve-sided  prisms,  and  in  rounded,  flattened,  or 
lenticular  crystals;  structure  fibrous,  resembling  hornblende; 
crystals  grouped,  or  intersect  each  other,  leaving  interstices 
or  cells ;  lustre  shining ;  the  massive  is  laminated,  or  con- 
sists of  shining  plates,  adhering  together ;  the  indurated  oc- 
curs in  friable  crusts,  or  in  small  masses,  with  an  earthy  tex- 
ture :  sp.  gr.  2.69. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  steel-coloured  globule, 
which  is  magnetic. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  41.25 ;  phosphoric  acid  19.25 : 
water  31.25;  alumine  5. — Laugier. 

Distinctive  characters.  A  little  attention  to  colour  will 
distinguish  it  from  hornblende;  from  the  blue  carbonate  of 
copper,  it  differs  in  being  of  darker  colour;  and  from  this  and 
indicolite,  it  differs  in  yielding  a  magnetic  globule, 

Localities.  Isle  of  France.  Allier,  in  France,  Cornwall 
and  Devonshire  in  England.  Siberia.  Bodenmais,  in  Bava- 
ria. Stavern,  in  Norway. 

U.  S.  New-Jersey.  It  is  transparent  when  first  taken 
from  the  earth,  but  becomes  deep  indigo  blue  by  exposure,  or 
by  a  moderate  heat. —  Woodbridge.  Also  on  Cross  wick's 
creek,  colour  externally  blue,  but  greenish  internally,  and 
soft,  like  talc. 

Variety  1.     EARTHY  PHOSPHATE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colours,  on  its  first  exposure,  grayish 
yellowish,  or  greenish  white,  but  soon  changes  to  indigo  blue 
of  various  shades ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  and  invest- 
ing other  minerals;  soft ;  often  very  slightly  cohering  ;  dull ; 
soils  the  fingers  :  sp.  gr.  about  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  brown,  and  then  melts  into 
a  magnetic  globule. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  47.50 ;  phosphoric  acid  32 ; 
water  20. — Klaproth. 

This  variety  is  found  in  alluvial  soils,  as  in  mud  and  clay, 
supposed  to  be  more  or  less  intermingled  with  animal  matter, 
and  from  whence  it  is  probable  the  phosphoric  acid  has  been 

What  is  the  colour  of  phosphate  of  iron  1 — What  is  the  coir  position  cf 
phosphate  of  iron  '? — What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  phosphate  of 
iron? 


MINERALOGY.  291 

derived.  Indeed,  it  has  been  found  penetrating  the  organic 
remains  of  several  animals. 

Localities.  Isle  of  Dogs,  Isle  of  Man,  and  in  the  Shetland 
Islands,  in  England. 

U.  S.  Al  lento wn,  and  other  places,  N.  J.  Near  Plymouth, 
and  at  Hopkinton,  Mass.  York,  in  Maine.  At  Allentown,  it 
occurs  in  masses  which  weigh  30lbs.  or  more. — Conrad. 

Uses.  Phosphate  of  iron  is  sometimes  ground  and  em- 
ployed as  a  pigment. 

Species  15.     CHROMATE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  blackish  brown,  or  nearly 
black ;  occurs  massive,  disseminated,  granular  and  crystal- 
lized in  regular  octohedrons,  or  double  four-sided  pyramids, 
sometimes  flattened ;  powder  and  streak  brownish ;  lustre 
imperfect  metallic;  opake;  brittle;  crystals  sometimes  so 
minute  as  to  resemble  a  tuft  of  hair,  and  sometimes  of  consid- 
erable size;  fracture  conchoidal,  or  uneven  :  sp.  gr.  4  to  4.50; 
sometimes  magnetic. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  with  borax,  yields 
a  rich  and  lively  grass  green  bead. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  34.7;  chromic  acid  43;  alu- 
mine20.3;  silex  2. —  Vauquelin. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  green  tinge  it  gives  to  borax, 
will  distinguish  it  from  octohedral  iron,  which  it  most  resem- 
bles, and  from  the  dark  varieties  of  blende. 

This  species  is  usually  found  imbedded  in  serpentine,  stea- 
tite, or  talc. 

Localities.  Near  Grassin,  department  of  Var,  in  France, 
in  nodules  and  veins,  in  serpentine.  Uralian  mountains.  In 
Siberia.  Shetland  Islands.  In  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  Pied- 
mont. 

U.  S.  London  County,  Va.  Bare  hills,  near  Baltimore, 
Md.  in  great  abundance,  in  serpentine.  From  this  locality, 
according  to  Hay  den,  it  extends  through  Pennsylvania,  New- 
Jersey,  and  New-York,  to  Milford,  in  Connecticut.  From  10 
to  14  miles  from  Philadelphia,  on  the  West  Chester  and  Lan- 
caster roads,  it  occurs  in  detached  masses,  weighing  from  a 
few  ounces  to  20  pounds,  and  in  one  instance  500  pounds. — 
Cooper.  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  in  octohedral  crystals.  On  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.  Milford,  Conn.,  disseminated  in  serpentine. 
Cumrnington,  Mass. 

What  use  is  made  of  phosphate  of  iron  ? — What  are  the  external  char- 
acters of  chromate  of  iron  1 — What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  chro- 
mate  of  iron  1 


292  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Uses,  Chromate  of  iron  is  employed  to  furnish  the  chromic 
acid,  which,  being-  united  with  oxide  of  lead,  forms  the  chro- 
mate  of  lead,  or  chrome  yellow,  a  yellow  pigment  in  great  de 
mand. 

The  chromate  of  iron  is  worth  from  40  to  60  dollars  a  ton 
in  market.  The  chromate  of  lead  sells  in  large  quantities  for 
$1,00  a  pound,  and  in  smaller  quantities,  or  by  the  single 
pound,  $1,25  to  $1,50.  It  is  stated  that  in  1819,  about  3,000 
pounds  of  the  chromate  of  lead  were  manufactured  in  Phila- 
delphia.— Cleveland. 

Species  16.     ARSENIATE  OF  IRON. 

External  characters.  Colour,  olive  green,  passing  into 
bottle  green  and  brownish  green ;  also  yellowish  brown,  and 
yellowish  red ;  streak  and  powder,  pale  brown  ;  occurs  in 
small,  and  often  very  perfect  cubes,  sometimes  truncated  on 
the  alternate  angles,  or  on  the  edges  and  angles;  crystals 
longitudinally  striated  ;  lustre  adamantine;  sometimes  occurs 
stalactical,  and  studded  with  crystals;  fracture  imperfectly 
conchoidal ;  transparent,  translucent,  or  opake;  yields  to  the 
knife:  sp.  gr.  3. 
Fig.  166. 

Fig.  166.     A  cube,  with  a  triangular  face  on 
each  alternate,  solid  angle,  formed  by  truncation. 


Fig.  167. 

Fig.  167.  A  cube,  with  the  alternate  solid  an- 
gles replaced  by  four  planes,  of  which  the  middle 
one  is  a  hexagon,  and  the  others,  triangles. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  in  the  flame  of  a  candle.  On 
charcoal,  before  the  blow  pipe,  emits  the  arsenical  odour,  and 
leaves  a  magnetic  scoria. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  48;  arsenic  acid  18;  water 
32;  carbonate  of  lime  2. —  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  St.  Leonard,  in  France.  Cornwall,  and  near 
St.  Day,  in  England,  with  the  other  oreb  of  iron. 

It  is  a  rare  mineral. 


What  is  the  use  of  chromate  of  iron  1 — What  are  the  colours  of  arsemato 
pf  iron  ? — What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  arseniate  of  iron '} 


MINERALOGY.  293 

Species  17.     HISINGERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black;  occurs  massive; 
cleavage  distinct  in  one  direction ;  fracture  earthy ;  streak 
greenish  gray;  soft;  sectile  :  sp.  gr.  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  magnetic  when  gently 
heated.  Fusible  into  a  dull  opake  black  globule.  With  bo- 
rax, yields  a  yellowish  green  glass. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  51.50;  silex  27.50;  alumine 
5.50;  oxide  of  manganese  0.77;  volatile  matter  11.75;  mag- 
nesia, a  trace. — Berzelius. 

Locality.     Sudermanland,  in  limestone. 

Species  18.     LEUCOPYRITE. 

External  characters.     Colour,  between  silver  white  and 
steel  gray;  occurs  in  rhombic   prisms   variously  modified;1 
also  in  masses  of  a  granular  composition:  sp.  gr.  7.22  to  7.33. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  without  arsenical  odour; 
when  fused  in  larger  masses  with  the  compound  blow  pipe, 
this  odour  is  apparent.  It  is  sometimes  magnetic.  Soluble 
in  nitric  acid. 

Composition.     Iron  97. 44;  arsenic  1.56. — Shepard. 

Localities.     Carinthia  and  Silesia,  with  other  ores  of  iron. 

U.  S.  Bedford  County,  Penn.,  and  in  Randolph  County, 
North  Carolina. 

GENUS  xi. — URANIUM. 

This  metal  is  reduced  to  its  pure  state  with  great  difficulty, 
even  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist.  According  to  Klaproth, 
uranium  is  of  a  dark  gray  colour,  with  a  metallic  lustre  and 
granular  texture.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric  acid ;  fuses  with  great 
difficulty,  and  affords  a  deep  orange  colour  to  porcelain  ena- 
mel :  sp.  gr.  8  to  9. 

Species  1.     BLACK  OXIDE  OF  URANIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  black,  bluish  black, 
brownish  black,  and  iron  black;  occurs  globular,  reniform, 
and  amorphous;  fracture  imperfectly  conchoidal;  structure 
granular  or  slaty;  lustre  imperfectly  metallic  ;  translucent, 
opake;  brittle;  scratches  glass,  but  yields  to  the  knife:  sp. 
gr.  7.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone  ;  with  borax,  yields 
a  gray  slag.  Soluble  in  nitric  acid,  with  the  emission  of  ni- 
trous gas. 


What  is  said  of  the  reduction  of  uranium  to  its  pure  state? 
25* 


294  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Composition.  Oxide  of  uranium  86.5  ;  galena  6  ;  oxide  of 
iron  2.5  ;  silex  5. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  From  the  dark  varieties  of  thesul- 
phuret  of  zinc,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  greater  specific  gravity, 
and  its  want  of  the  foliated  structure  which  the  zinc  possesses. 
The  chromate  of  iron  gives  a  green  globule  with  borax,  and 
the  ferruginous  oxide  of  tungsten  is  fusible  alone. 

This  rare  species  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  commonly  in 
small  masses.  It  is  associated  with  the  ores  of  copper,  co- 
balt, arsenic,  silver,  &c. 

Localities.  Konsberg,  in  Norway.  Joachimsthal,  in  Bo- 
hemia, and  in  Cornwall,  England. 

Species  2.     GREEN  OXIDE  OF  URANIUM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  emerald,  or  grass  green, 
often  very  beautiful ;  also,  yellowish  green,  leek  green,  and 
lemon  yellow;  streak  pale;  occurs  crystallized  in  quadrangu- 
lar prisms,  in  four,  six,  and  eight-sided  tables,  and  rarely  in 
obtuse  octohedrons ;  all  the  varieties  subject  to  truncation ; 
crystals  variously  grouped,  sometimes  resembling  a  fan,  and 
sometimes  a  sheaf;  sometimes  it  appears  like  a  scale  of  mica, 
attached  to  some  other  mineral ;  structure  foliated  ;  cleavage, 
easy  in  certain  directions ;  lustre  glistening,  and  sometimes 
pearly;  transparent,  translucent ;  yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr. 
3.10. 

Fig.  168. 

Fig.    168.      An  eight  and  four-sided  tabular 
crystal,  one  of  the  common  forms. 


Fig.   169.     An  octohedron,   with   truncated 
summits,  and  truncated  angles. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  but  does  not  melt. 
Dissolves  in  nitric  acid,  yielding,  when  the  solution  is  satu- 
rated, a  lemon  yellow  solution;  with  borax,  yields  a  yellowish 
green  glass. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  uranium  72.15  ;  water  15.70;  lime 
6.87;  oxide  of  tin  arid  manganese  1.55;  gangue  2.50. — Ber- 
zelius. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  Phillips,   a  specimen  from 

What  are  the  properties  of  black  oxide  of  uranium  ?— Is  uranium  a  com- 
mon metal  ? — What  are  the  external  characters  of  green  oxide  of  uranium? 


MINERALOGY.  295 

Cornwall  yielded  oxide  of  uranium  60 ;  oxide  of  copper  9 ; 
phosphoric  acid  15.3;  water  13.8;  silex  0.5. 

If  this  is  the  composition  of  the  present  species,  it  is  a  phos- 
phate of  uranium,  probably  coloured  by  phosphate  of  copper. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  green  mica,  but  the 
mica  is  elastic,  while  the  uranium  is  easily  broken,  and  is  in- 
elastic ;  mica  is  also  more  easily  cleaved.  It  may  resemble 
some  of  the  green  ores  of  copper,  but  copper,  when  dissolved 
in  nitric  acid,  yields  a  blue  colour  with  ammonia,  which  the 
uranium  does  not. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  particularly  in  granite. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  where  it  is  found  »in  granite,  with 
the  ores  of  copper,  arseniate  of  iron,  wavellite,  &c.  Boden- 
mais,  in  Bavaria,  with  felspar  and  beryl.  Near  Autun,  and 
near  Limoges,  in  France. 

U.  S.     Near  Baltimore,  Md. — Gilmor. 

GENUS  XII. TlN. 

Tin  is  a  white  metal  of  considerable  lustre,  and  not  easily 
oxidated  by  exposure.  It  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  but  is  not 
so  soft  as  lead.  When  bent,  it  makes  a  peculiar  crackling 
noise,  probably  owing  to  the  separation  of  some  of  its  parti- 
cles. It  is  very  malleable,  and  is  readily  reduced  into  thin 
sheets.  It  melts  at  442°  Fah. :  sp.  gr.  7.29. 

Uses.  Tin  is  employed  for  various  and  very  important 
purposes.  Thin  sheets  of  iron,  being  dipped  into  melted  tin, 
receive  a  coat  of  the  metal,  and  are  thus  prevented  from  rust- 
ing. This  is  commonly  called  sheet  tin,  and  is  the  article  of 
which  the  common  tin  ware  is  made.  Tinfoil,  with  mercury, 
forms  the  amalgam  on  the  backs  of  looking-glasses.  Tin  also 
forms  a  part  of  prince's  metal,  Britannia  metal,  pewter,  specu- 
lum metal,  &c. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  tin  was  sometimes  found  in 
its  native  state,  but  Mr.  Phillips  observes,  that  this  error  arose 
from  there  having  been  found  pieces  of  the  metal  at  the  sites 
of  old  smelting  places,  and  which  had  been  reduced  by  the 
heat,  long  before. 

The  ores  of  tin  are  only  two,  an  oxide  and  a  sulphuret. 

Species  1.  OXIDE  OF  TIN. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  brown,  brown- 
ish black,  grayish  yellow,  hair  brown,  and  nearly  colourless, 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  green  oxide  of  uranium  ? — What 
are  the  uses  of  tin  1—  Is  tin  ever  found  in  its  native  state  1 — What  are  the 
colours  of  oxide  of  tin  1 


296 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


and  transparent ;  the  light  brown,  translucent,  and  the  darker 
colours,  opake ;  occurs  in  crystals,  and  in  masses,  from  the 
size  of  grains  to  that  of  the  fist;  primitive  form,  the  octo- 
hedron,  with  square  bases ;  secondary  forms  very  numerous, 
but  difficult  to  ascertain,  on  account  of  the  imperfections,  or 
grouping  of  the  crystals ;  lustre  resinous,  or  adamantine ; 
structure  lamellar;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  octo- 
hedron,  and  also  to  the  diagonals  of  the  common  base  ;  frac- 
ture uneven  and  imperfectly  conchoidal ;  gives  sparks  with 
steel ;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  6.7  to  7. 
Fig.  170. 

Fig.  170.    An  obtuse  octohedron,  or  double 
four-sided  pyramid,  the  primitive  form. 


Fig.  171. 


Fig.  171.  A  four-sided  prism,  terminated  by 
four-sided  pyramids.  This  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon forms. 


Fig.  172. 


Fig.  172. 
truncated. 


The  same  as  171,  with  the  angles 


Fig.  174. 


Fig.  173.  A  rnacled,  or  twin  crystal,  com- 
posed of  two  four-sided  prisms,  with  truncated 
edges  joined  together. 


Fig.  174.  A  four-sided  prism,  surmounted  by 
eight-sided  pyramids,  which  are  terminated  by  four- 
sided  summits. 


What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  the  oxide  of  tin  ? 


MINERALOGY.  i97 

A  great  variety  of  other  secondary  forms  are  enumerated. 

Chemical  characters.  It  decrepitates  strongly,  but  in  fine 
powder  may  be  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  on  charcoal. 

Composition.  Tin  77.5  ;  oxygen  21.5  ;  oxide  of  iron  0.25  ; 
silex  0.75. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Carbonate  of  iron,  which  it  most 
resembles,  leaves  a  magnetic  globule  under  the  blow  pipe. 
Sulpnuret  of  zinc  is  infusible,  and  not  so  hard  as  oxide  of  tin  ; 
and  feiruginous  oxide  of  tungsten  yields  readily  to  the  knife, 
and  melts  into  a  black  scoria. 

Tin  occurs  only  in  primitive  rocks.  Its  localities  are  few, 
but  Jameson  observes,  that  when  it  does  occur,  it  is  generally 
in  considerable  quantities. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  in  England.  Galicia,  in  Spain. 
Bohemia  and  Saxony.  Sumatra,  Siam,  and  Pegu.  Mexico 
and  Chili. 

U.  S.     Goshen,  Mass. 

The  greatest  known  deposite  of  tin  is  at  Cornwall,  where  it 
occurs  in  veins,  traversing  granite,  and  other  primitive  rocks, 
and  is  associated  with  chlorite,  iron  pyrites,  topaz,  quartz, 
fluor,  &c.  The  ore  from  the  Cornwall  mines  is  most  com- 
monly found  in  the  state  of  crystals,  variously  grouped  or  ag- 
gregated, and  according  to  Phillips,  the  different  veins  yield 
different  varieties  of  form.  It  is  also  found  in  alluvial  deposites, 
in  the  same  district,  and  is  called  Stream  Tin,  because  the 
ore  is  separated  from  the  rocks  and  brought  down  by  streams 
of  water.  , 

Some  of  the  Cornwall  mines  extend  many  hundred  feet  un- 
der the  sea,  and  it  is  said  that  in  one  of  them,  the  noise  of  the 
waves  and  the  rolling  of  the  pebbles  can  be  distinctly  heard, 
so  near  has  the  excavation  been  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean. 

The  Block  Tin  of  commerce  is  extracted  from  the  ore  taken 
from  the  excavated  mines.  Grain  Tin,  which  is  said  to  be  of 
a  purer  quality,  is  extracted  from  stream  tin. 

Variety  1.     FIBROUS  OXIDE  OF  TIN.     WOOD  TIN. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brown,  of  several  shades  ; 
occurs  amorphous,  reniform,  globular,  and  wedge-shaped; 
surface  generally  water-worn ;  structure  fibrous  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  concentric  lamellar  in  the  other ;  fibres  radiate,  or 

How  is  oxide  of  tin  distinguished  from  other  minerals  ?— Where  is  th« 
greatest  known  deposite  of  tin  ? 


298  INTRODUCTION  TO 

diverge,  sometimes  intersect  each  other  ;  lustre  feebly  resin* 
ous ;  colours,  sometimes  arranged  in  bands  :  sp.  gr.  6.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  and  becomes  reddish, 
but  does  not  melt. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  tin  91  ;  oxide  of  iron  $.—  Vau> 
quelin. 

Variety  2.     TOAD'S  EYE  WOOD  TIN. 

External  characters.  Colours,  hair  brown,  and  yellowish 
white,  arranged  in  concentric  layers;  occurs  in  minute 
spherical  masses,  composed  of  fibres  radiating  from  the 
centre. 

Wood  Tin,  so  called  from  its  fibrous  structure  resembling 
that  of  wood,  is  found  chiefly  in  the  alluvial  mining  districts 
of  Cornwall.  It  is  commonly  found  in  small  masses,  but  a 
mass  found  near  St.  Austle  Aveigbs  15lb.  and  for  which  100 
dollars  has  been  offered. 

The  toad's  eye  variety,  is  found  in  small  masses  imbedded 
in  an  aggregate  of  schorl  and  quartz. 

GENUS  XIII. ZlNC. 

Zinc,  when  pure,  is  of  a  brilliant  white  colour,  with  a  tinge 
of  blue;  fracture  uneven,  striated,  or  foliated,  presenting  the 
result  of  a  confused  crystallization  ;  when  rubbed  on  the  fin- 
gers, zinc  imparts  to  them  a  peculiar  taste  and  smell.  When 
cold,  it  is  not  malleable,  but  when  heated  to  a  little  above  212° 
it  becomes  malleable,  and  may  be  hammered  into  thin  plates, 
or  drawn  under  rollers.  If  heated  to  about  400°  it  becomes 
so  brittle  as  to  be  easily  reduced  to  powder  in  a  mortar. — 
Thomson. 

Zinc  melts  at  680°,  and  if  the  temperature  be  increased,  it 
burns  with  a  bluish  white  flame :  sp,  gr.  7.29. 

Uses.  When  mixed  with  copper,  it  forms  brass,  one  of  the 
most  useful  and  common  of  alloys.  In  chemistry  it  is  employ- 
ed to  obtain  hydrogen,  by  solution  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
water.  Its  salts  and  oxides  are  employed  in  medicine,  and 
the  pure  metal,  when  reduced  to  thin  sheets,  is  used  to  cover 
the  roofs  of  buildings. 

Zinc  never  occurs  in  the  native  state,  but  is  found  mineral- 
ized by  sulphur,  oxygen,  or  carbonic  acid. 

Its  ores  are  few  in  number,  and  not  common. 

Species  1.     SULPHURET  OF  ZINC.     BLENDE. 
External  characters.     Colours,  yellowish,  greenish,  red- 

What  colour  is  pure  zinc '? — How  may  zinc  be  made  malleable  ?— What 
are  the  uses  of  zinc  1 


MINERALOGY.  299 

dish,  or  blackish  brown;  streak  corresponding  with  the  colour, 
but  paler;  occurs  crystallized,  amorphous,  and  lamelliform ; 
primitive  form,  the  rhombic  dodecahedron  ;  secondary  forms, 
the  octohedron,  and  tetrahedron,  with  their  varieties,  often 
modified  by  truncation  and  bevelment ;  opake,  or  translucent ; 
yields  to  the  knife ;  brittle ;  crystals  commonly  grouped,  so 
as  to  make  it  difficult  to  determine  their  forms  ;  lustre  shining, 
or  splendent;  sometimes  metallic  or  adamantine;  structure 
foliated:  sp.  gr.  3.7  to  4. 
Fig.  175. 


Fig.  175.     The  rhombic  dodecahedron,  the 
primitive  form. 


Fig.  176.     The  same  with  all  the  edges  trun- 
cated. 


These  simple  forms  are  subject  to  deep  and  various  trunca- 
tions ;  so  that  in  many  instances,  the  forms  are  very  difficult 
to  determine  or  understand.  One  complex  form,  having  the 
general  appearance  of  fig.  175,  is  so  modified  by  truncation, 
as  to  present  24  faces,  of  which  12  are  nearly  equilateral, 
and  12  isosceles  triangles. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  but  is  commonly  infu- 
sible. When  pulverized  and  thrown  into  sulphuric  acid,  it 
gives  the  odour  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

Composition.  (Brown  variety.)  Zinc  58.8;  sulphur  23.5, 
iron  8.4;  silex  7.0. —  Thomson. 

(Yellow  variety.)  Zinc  64;  sulphur  20;  water  6;  iron  5; 
fluoric  acid  4;  silex  1. — Bergman. 

Distinctive  characters.  Sulphuret  of  lead  is  easily  reduced 
to  the  metallic  state  by  the  blowpipe,  while  the  zinc  is  infusi 
ble.  Oxide  of  tin  is  of  a  darker  colour  than  the  present  species, 
and  wants  its  foliated  structure.  Chromate  of  iron  tinges  bo- 
rax green,  and  the  carbonate  of  iron  yields  a  magnetic  glo 
bule,  neither  of  which  characters  belongs  to  zinc. 

What  are  the  external  characters  of  sulphuret  of  zinc  7 
What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  blende  ?— What  are  the  distinctivt 
characters  of  blende?  • 


300  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Zinc  is  found  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks,  and  is  asso- 
ciated with  sulphuret  of  lead,  with  iron  and  copper. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  and  Derbyshire,  England,  Perthshire, 
Cumberland,  and  in  the  lead  hills,  near  Edinburgh. 

U.S.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  Penn. 
Hamburg  and  Sparta,  N.  J.  Near  Hamilton  College,  N.  Y., 
colour  wax  yellow,  and  translucent. — Torrey.  At  Sha wan- 
gunk  Mountain,  and  in  the  Highlands,  N.  Y.  Berlin,  Conn., 
colour  yellow.  Southampton  lead  mine,  Mass.  Also  at 
Leverett. 

This  ore  commonly  occurs  too  widely  disseminated  in  its 
gangue,  to  make  it  profitable  for  working.  It  is  howevei 
sometimes,  after  roasting,  used  in  the  preparation  of  brass. 

Species  2.     RED  OXIDE  OF  ZINC. 

External  characters.  Colours,  ruby,  blood,  or  aurora  red. 
sometimes  yellowish  red;  occurs  massive,  and  disseminated; 
fracture  foliated  in  one  direction,  and  flat  conchoidal  in  the 
other ;  lustre  shining,  and  somewhat  micaceous ;  cleavage, 
(according  to  Phillips,)  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  a  regular 
six-sided  prism;  translucent  on  the  edges;  by  exposure,  be- 
comes dull,  and  covered  with  a  whitish  pearly  crust;  struc- 
ture foliated  ;  brittle,  and  easily  reduced  to  powder ;  yields  to 
the  knife  :  sp.  gr.  6.22. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  with  borax  yields 
a  yellowish  transparent  bead.  Soluble  with  effervescence,  in 
all  the  mineral  acids;  with  potash  melts  into  an  emerald  gieen 
glass,  which  communicates  to  water  the  same  colour,  but  is 
changed  to  rose  red,  on  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  acid. — 
Bruce. 

Composition.  Zinc  76 ;  oxygen  16;  oxides  of  manganese 
and  iron  8. — Bruce. 

Oxide  of  zinc  88;  red  oxide  of  manganese  12. — Berthier. 

Distinctive  char&cters.  It  differs  from  red  sulphuretted  an- 
timonial  silver,  and  from  the  chromate  of  lead,  by  its  infusi- 
bility  before  the  blow  pipe ;  from  the  red  oxide  of  copper  by 
its  greater  specific  gravity,  and  by  its  colourless  solution  in 
nitric  acid ;  from  the  red  oxide  of  titanium,  by  its  solubility  in 
acids ;  and  is  not,  like  the  red  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  volatilized 
by  the  blow  pipe,  with  the  garlic  odour. — Cleveland. 

Localities.  In  the  Franklin,  Sterling,  and  Rutger's  iron 
mines,  in  Sussex  County,  N.  J.  At  Franklin,  it  is  imbedded 

What  are  the  external  characters  of  the  red  oxide  of  zinc  ? — What  are 
tJte  distinctive  characters  of  red  oxide  of  zinc? 


MINERALOGY.  301 

in  a  whitish  oxide  of  zinc.  Sometimes  the  Franklimte  is  im- 
bedded in  it,  forming  an  aggregate  of  a  singular  aspect,  a  red 
ground,  with  black  spots. 

Cleveland  remarks,  that  this  ore  is  well  adapted  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  brass. 

Species  3.     SILICIOUS  OXIDE  OF  ZINC. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellowish  or  grayish  white, 
and  light  brown,  sometimes  with  a  tinge  of  green;  occurs 
stalactical,  botryoidal,  massive,  and  crystallized;  primary 
form  the  right  rhombic  prism  ;  secondary  forms  the  six-sided 
prism,  and  the  four-sided  table,  variously  modified  by  trunca- 
tion; also  the  octohedron ;  crystals  commonly  collected  into 
groups;  translucent  or  transparent;  becomes  electric  by  heat; 
sometimes  gives  fire  with  steel,  but  may  more  commonly  be 
scratched  by  the  knife;  texture,  foliated,  fibrous,  or  earthy: 
sp.  gr.  3.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Whitens,  and  becomes  friable,  but 
does  not  melt.  Dissolves  in  nitric  acid,  without  effervescence, 
forming  a  gelatinous  solution. 

Composition.     Oxide  of  zinc  66;  silex  33. — Klaproth. 

Oxide  of  zinc  38;  silex  50;  water  12. — Pelletier. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  zeolites,  which  it  sometimes 
resembles,  melt  into  a  spongy  mass.  From  stilbite,  and  the 
varieties  of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime,  it  is  distinguished 
by  the  effects  of  acids,  and  the  result  of  the  blow  pipe,  as  also 
by  its  electric  property. 

This  species  is  found  in  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary 
rocks,  but  most  frequently  in  limestone. 

Localities.  Wanlockhead,  in  Scotland.  Leicestershire 
and  Derbyshire,  Eng.  Flintshire,  in  Wales.  Bleiberg,  in 
Carinthia,  and  Freyberg,  in  the  Brisgau. 

U.  S.  Perkiomen  lead  mine,  and  at  Conestoga  creek, 
Penn.  Near  the  Falls  of  the  Hockhocking,  Ohio. 

Species  4.     CARBONATE  OF  ZINC.     CALAMINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  gray,  greenish,  or  brown 
yellowish,  and  sometimes  nearly  white ;  occurs  crystallized, 
compact,  amorphous,  pseudo-morphous,  and  cupriferous;  trans- 
lucent, or  opake ;  yields  to  the  knife ;  not  electric  by  heat : 
sp.  gr.  3.35  to  4.41. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  loses  about  34  per  cent. 

What  are  the  colours  of  silicious  oxide  of  zinc  ? — What  are  the  distinctive 
characters  of  the  silicious  oxide  of  zinc?— What  are  the  colours  of  carbon- 
ate of  zinc? 

26  '-.  ? 


302  INTRODUCTION  TO 

by  ignition.  Soluble  with  effervescence,  in  cold  sulphum,  or 
warm  nitric  acid.  Cleveland  says,  if  paper,  which  has  been 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  this  salt,  in  nitric  acid,  be  dried,  and 
then  held  at  the  distance  of  a  few  inches  from  burning  coals, 
it  spontaneously  kindles. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  silicious 
oxide,  by  its  effervescence  with  acids,  and  by  its  not  forming  a 
gelatinous  solution. 

Uses.     When  melted  with  copper  it  forms  brass. 

The  two  last  named  species  were  anciently  known  under 
the  name  of  calamine. 

The  ancients  highly  esteemed  an  earth  under  the  above 
name,  which  had  the  quality  of  converting  copper  into  a  gold- 
en yellow  metal,  and,  at  the  same  time,  of  increasing  «its 
weight. 

It  is  most  probable,  that,  at  first,  brass  was  formed  by  the 
natural  occurrence  of  the  ores  of  copper  and  zinc  together,  as 
is  said  to  be  the  case  in  some  of  the  Hungarian  mines. 

Brass  had  been  made  and  employed  in  the  arts,  for  many 
centuries,  before  it  was  known  that  calamine,  which  was  con- 
sidered an  earth,  contained  a  metal. 

At  present,  most  of  the  brass  used  in  commerce  and  the 
arts,  is  made  more  or  less  after  the  ancient  manner.  The 
oxide,  or  carbonate  of  zinc,  being  previously  roasted,  is  mixed 
with  granulated  copper  and  charcoal,  and  then  exposed  to  a 
proper  degree  of  heat.  The  zinc  is  reduced  to  its  metallic 
state,  and  unites  with  the  copper  to  form  the  alloy  in  question. 

The  mode  of  obtaining  metallic  zinc,  is  by  first  roasting  the 
calamine  to  drive  off  the  carbonic  acid,  and  other  volatile  mat- 
ters, and  then  by  distilling  in  earthen  retorts,  the  beaks  ot 
which  are  placed  under  water.  The  metal  passes,  by  distilla- 
tion, into  the  vessels  of  water.  This  process  is  said  to  have 
been  obtained  from  the  Chinese,  by  a  person  who  went  out  for 
that  purpose. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Calamine  is  said  to  exist  in  abundance 
in  Jefferson  County,  Missouri.  It  is  also  found  at  the  Per 
kiomen  lead  mine,  Penn. 

Variety  1.     ELECTRIC  CALAMINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  sometimes  pale  blue 
green,  or  yellow;  occurs  in  six-sided  crystals,  the  termina- 
tions being  sometimes  variously,  and  differently  modified,  as 

What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  carbonate  of  zinc? — What  is  cala- 
mine?—What  was  the  ancient  method  of  making  brass?- -How  is  metallic 
zinc  obtained  ? 


MINERALOGY.  303 

ih  those  of  tourmaline  ;  primary  form,  the  right  rhombic  prism, 
parallel  to  the  terminal  planes  of  which,  cleavage  may  be  ef- 
fected, also,  in  the  direction  of  the  lateral  planes ;  lustre  vi- 
treous, or  pearly;  sp.  gr.  3.37;  translucent;  transparent. 

It  also  occurs  globular,  or  botryoidal. 

Chemical  character*,.  Infusible  alone,  but  decrepitates, 
and  becomes  opake,  emitting  a  phosphorescent  light ;  with 
borax  melts  into  a  clear  globule.  Forms  a  jelly  with  ho4 
muriatic,  or  sulphuric  acid. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  zinc  66.00;  silica  25.00;  water  9. 
—^Berthier. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Jefferson  County,  Missouri,  at  a  lead 
mine  called  Valle's  digging,  with  common  calamine. 

Large  quantities  are  found  in  Hungary,  and  in  several  other 
European  localities. 

This  mineral  is  formed  artificially  at  the  iron  furnace  of 
Salisbury,  Conn. 

These  crystals,  like  tourmaline,  become  electric  by  heat, 
hence  the  name. 

Species  5.     SULPHATE  OF  ZINC. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  grayish,  or  reddish 
white;  occurs  in  concretions,  in  efflorescences,  stalactical, 
reniform,  and  investing;  also  crystallized  in  minute  rectangu- 
lar, four-sided  prisms;  structure  of  the  massive,  fibrous  and 
radiated;  lustre  shining;  translucent;  soft;  brittle;  soluble  in 
water  ;  taste,  styptic  and  nauseous  :  sp.  gr.  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  it  fuses,  and 
gives  off  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  leaving 
a  gray  scoria.  Its  solutions  in  water,  are  precipitated  into  the 
carbonated  alkalies. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  zinc  27.5  ;  sulphuric  acid  22  ;  wa- 
ter 50. 

It  is  found  in  mines  containing  the  sulphuret  of  zinc,  from 
the  decomposition  of  which  it  is  supposed  to  arise. 

The  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  white  vitriol  of  commerce,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  same  kind  of  process,  already  described,  for 
making  green  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper.  The  sulphuret 
of  zinc,  being  first  roasted,  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air 
and  moisture,  by  which  means  the  sulphur  is  converted  into 
sulphuric  acid,  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. As  the  acid  forms,  it  combines  with  the  zinc,  forming 

What  is  the  composition  of  white  vitriol?— How  is  white  vitriol  pro 
pared? 


304  INTRODUCTION  TO 

a  sulphate,  which  is  obtained  by  lixiviation,  or  washing,  and 
subsequent  evaporation  and  crystallization. 

GENUS  xiv. — MANGANESE. 

Manganese,  in  its  metallic  state,  has  not  been  converted  to 
any  use;  it  is  therefore  never  reduced,  except  in  the  laborato- 
ry of  the  chemist,  in  small  quantities,  by  way  of  experiment. 

When  pure,  it  is  of  a  grayish  white  colour,  like  cast  iron, 
and  of  a  brilliant  lustre;  melts  at  160°  Wedgewood,  and  has 
neither  taste,  nor  smell.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  soon  loses  its 
lustre,  and  again  becomes  an  oxide :  sp.  gr.  8. 

Uses.  The  black  oxide  of  manganese  is  employed,  with 
muriate  of  soda,  and  sulphuric  acid,  to  produce  chlorine,  a  gas 
used  in  bleaching  cotton  and  linen  cloth,  paper,  &c.  It  is 
also  used  with  sulphuric  acid,  to  furnish  oxygen  gas  for  chemi- 
cal purposes ;  and  in  small  quantities,  it  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  glass.  It  is  also  employed  to  give  a  purple  tinge 
to  enamel. 

The  best  test  of  the  presence  of  manganese  is  the  purple 
colour  which  all  its  ores  give,  when  fused  with  borax. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  are  not  very  numerous,  but  they  are 
widely  disseminated,  and  quite  common. 

Species  1.     BLACK  OXIDE  OF  MANGANESE. 

External  Characters.  Colours,  grayish  black,  dark  violet, 
or  iron  black  ;  occurs  massive,  acicular,  and  crystallized ; 
primitive  form,  the  rhombic  prism,  with  various  modifications ; 
also,  in  acicular  crystals,  longitudinally  striated,  and  diverg- 
ing, or  confusedly  intersecting  each  other  ;  lustre  earthy,  some- 
times metallic,  and  shining;  soils  the  fingers  :  sp.  gr.  4.14  to 
4.80. 

Variety  1.     RADIATED  AND  FIBROUS  BLACK  OXIDE  OF 

MANGANESE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  steel  gray,  passing  into 
iron  black ;  occurs  in  fibres,  or  in  acicular  crystals,  some- 
times radiating  from  a  point,  and  sometimes  intersecting  each 
other  in  various  directions,  and  resembling  a  bunch  of  the 
finest  steel  needles,  after  having  been  in  the  fire  ;  lustre  metal- 
lic ;  often  presenting  specimens  of  singular  beauty. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  with  borax  dis- 
solves, giving  the  globule  a  dark  violet,  or  purple  tinge.  When 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  black  oxide  of  manganese  ? — Are  the  ores  of 
manganese  common  ores,  or  not  ?— What  are  the  external  characters  of 
black  oxide  of  manganese  ? 


MINERALOGY.  305 

a  grain  or  two  of  its  powder  is  mixed  with  a  little  common 
salt,  and  moistened  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  heated,  the  suffo- 
cating smell  of  chlorine  is  emitted. 

Composition.  Manganese  44 ;  oxygen  42  ;  oxide  of  iron  3  , 
silex  5  ;  carbon  1.5. — Cordier. 

Oxide  of  manganese  99.25;  water  0.25. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  sulphuret  of  antimony, 
but  this  is  easily  fusible,  while  the  manganese  is  infusible.  It 
may  be  confounded  with  brown  haematite,  but  this  becomes 
magnetic  under  the  blow  pipe,  and  tinges  borax  brown,  while 
the  manganese  tinges  borax  purple. 

Variety  2.     COMPACT  BLACK  OXIDE  OF  MANGANESE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  dark  steel  gray,  passing  into 
iron  black,  violet  brown,  or  brownish  black ;  occurs  massive, 
stalactical,  and  botryoidal;  lustre  a  little  metallic,  or  dull; 
fracture  conchoidal,  or  uneven;  texture  compact;  yields  to 
the  knife,  but  sometimes  scratches  glass ;  soils  the  fingers  • 
sp.  gr.  3.70. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone ;  with  borax  gives  the 
purple  globule. 

Composition.  It  is  an  impure  mineral,  containing  about  60 
or  80  per  cent,  of  the  oxide  of  manganese,  20  per  cent,  of, 
iron,  and  often  a  portion  of  silex,  barytes,  carbon,  &c. 
Variety  3.     EARTHY  OXIDE  or  MANGANESE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  brown,  and  black- 
ish brown ;  occurs  massive,  amorphous,  and  botryoidal ;  tex- 
ture and  fracture  earthy ;  more  or  less  friable,  and  sometimes 
pulverulent;  soils  the  fingers  strongly:  sp.  gr.  2  to  3. 

Composition.  It  sometimes  contains  nearly  one  half  oxide 
of  iron,  or  other  foreign  substances. 

This  variety  is  known  to  miners  under  the  name  of  load. 
Jameson  says,  that  when  it  is  dry,  and  mixed  with  one  fourth 
of  its  weight  of  linseed  oil,  and  moderately  heated,  it  inflames. 

Oxide  of  manganese  is  found  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  and 
most  frequently  among  the  ores  of  iron.  It  is  very  extensively 
diffused,  and  is  often  the  colouring  matter  of  other  minerals. 
It  however  does  not  very  often  occur  in  large  quantities  at  a 
place. 

Localities.  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  Aberdeen.  In  Ger- 
many, France,  Siberia,  and  indeed  in  almost  every  country. 

U.  S.  Lawrence  county,  Arkansas  Territory.  Near 
Greenburg,  and  near  Big  Sandy  river,  Ken.  Shenandoah 

What  are  its  chemical  characters  ? — What  is  the  composition  of  black 
oxide  of  manganese? — What  are  its  distinctive  characters'? 


306  INTRODUCTION  TO  ^ 

county,  and  Albemaiie  county,  Va.  Near  Wilkesbarre; 
also  near  Lancaster,  and  in  Northumberland  county,  Penn. 
Near  Hamburg,  N.  J.  Near  Troy  and  near  Ancram,  and  on 
the  island  of  New  York,  N.  Y.  Monkton,  Vt.,  crystallized 
and  earthy.  Also  at  Bennington,  from  whence  large  quanti- 
ties are  drawn  for  use. — Hall.  Lebanon,  Conn.  Milton, 
Lynn,  Deerfield,  and  Leverett,  Mass.  Also  at  Dorchester, 
Adams,  Richmond,  and  Plainfield,  Mass. 

Species  2.   SILICIOUS  OXIDE  or  MANGANESE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  pale  red,  rose  red,  reddish 
brown,  and  yellowish  white;  occurs  massive,  composed  of 
granular  concretions;  also  earthy,  and  it  is  said  in  lenticular 
crystals;  fracture  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining,  or  nearly 'dull ; 
scratches  glass,  when  compact:  sp.  gr.  3.2. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  on  the  edges;  with  borax, 
gives  a  violet-coloured,  translucent  glass. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  manganese  52.6;  silex  39.6  ;  oxide 
of  iron  4.6;  lime  1.5;  volatile  matter  2.75. — Berzelius. 

Localities.  Kapnic,  in  Transylvania,  with  magnetic  oxide 
of  iron,  and  garnets.  Near  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire,  with 
the  gray  oxide  of  manganese.  Also  in  Sweden,  Siberia,  &c. 

V,  S.  Middlebury,  Vt.  Cummington,  Mass.  Also  at 
Hamburg,  and  at  the  Franklin  furnace,  N.  J. ;  and  at  Cum- 
berland, R.  I.,  where  it  is  associated  with  Yenite. 

Species  3.     CARBONATE  OF  MANGANESE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  rose  red,  reddish  white,  and 
brownish ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  small  shining  crys- 
talline grains,  of  a  foliated  structure  ;  also  globular,  and  reni- 
form  ;  yields  a  little  to  the  knife :  translucent  on  the  edges . 
fracture  conchoidal,  and  splintery:  sp.  gr.  3.20. 

It  is  said  also  to  occur  in  lenticular  crystals. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  brown  :  with 
borax,  gives  a  reddish  violet  bead. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  manganese  48  ;  carbonic  acid  49  ; 
oxide  of  iron  2. 1  ;  silex  0.9. — Lampidius. 

Localities.  Nagyag,  and  Kapnic,  in  Transylvania,  in  a  vein 
of  native  auriferous  tellurium. 

GENUS  XV. MOLYBDENA. 

The  pure  metal,  which  is  obtained  with  great  difficulty,  is 
of  a  white  colour,  tinged  with  yellow.     On  exposure  to  the 
*  Now  called  Fowlerite. 

What  are  the  external  characters  of  silicious  oxide  cf  manganese  ? — 
What  are  the  colours  of  carbonate  of  manganese? — What  is  said  of  pure 
molybdena  ? 


MINEHALOGY.  307 

«ir,  it  soon  oxidates,  but  remains  unaltered  under  water.  On 
exposure  to  continued  heat,  it  is  converted  into  a  white  oxide. 
By  the  action  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acid,  it  is  converted  into 
molybdic  acid,  which  has  the  form  of  a  yellowish  white  pow- 
der. Sp.  gr.  of  the  pure  metal,  8.6. 

The  ores  of  this  metal  are  few,  and  though  not  uncommon, 
they  rarely  occur  in  any  considerable  quantities. 

Species  1.    SULPHURET  OF  MOLYBDENA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  nearly  that  of  fresh  cut,  me- 
tallic lead:  occurs  massive,  or  crystallized  in  short  hexahe- 
dral  prisms;  structure  lamellar,  or  foliated;  cleavage  perfect 
in  one  direction  ;  lustre  brilliant,  and  not  subject  to  tarnish ; 
folia  easily  separable,  and  somewhat  flexible ;  unctuous  to  the 
touch  ;  leaves  a  metallic  streak  on  paper;  opake:  sp.  gr.  4.5 
to  4.7  ;  often  appears,  in  spots,  or  dots,  in  other  minerals,  as 
in  limestone. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  sometimes  gives  out 
the  odour  of  sulphur,  and  if  the  heat  be  urged,  emits  white 
fumes.  Soluble  with  effervescence  in  carbonate  of  soda.  It 
is  converted  into  molybdic  acid  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid. 

Composition.    Molybdena  60 ;  sulphur  40. — Bucholz. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  plumbago,  but  may 
be  readily,  and  certainly  distinguished  from  it,  by  the  blow 
pipe  with  borax.  The  molybdena,  in  small  scales,  will  adhere 
to  the  surface  of  the  globule  of  fused  borax,  without  any 
change;  but  the  plumbago  dissolves,  or  separates  into  minute 
particles,  coating  the  surface  of  the  borax  with  a  lead  gray 
crust.  Micaceous  iron  becomes  magnetic  before  the  blow 
pipe,  which  will  always  distinguish  it  from  molybdena. 

This  mineral  belongs  to  primitive  rocks,  as  granite,  gneiss, 
and  primitive  limestone. 

Localities.  Near  Mont'  Blanc.  Near  Norberg,  in  Sweden, 
in  a  white  steatite.  Abo,  in  Finland,  with  hornblende. 
Chessy,  in  France,  in  sienite.  Cornwall,  with  tin  and  cop- 
per. Cumberland,  with  apatite,  and  iron  ore. 

U.  S.  Chester  county,  and  Delaware  county,  Penn.  Near 
Baltimore,  in  granite.  Near  Philadelphia,  in  gneiss.  On  the 
island  of  New- York,  and  in  the  Highlands,  N.Y.  Also  in 
Westchester,  and  Putnam  counties,  and  at  Crownpoint. 
East  Haddam,  Saybrook,  and  Brookfield,  Conn.  Shaftsbury, 
Mass.,  in  six-sided  tables  or  plates. — Silliman.  Also,  at 

Are  the  ores  of  molybdena  common  ? — What  is  the  appearance  of  sul- 
phuret  of  molybdena  ?— What  are  the  chemical  characters  of  this  ore  1-* 
How  is  this  ore  distinguished  from  Plumbago  ? 


308  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Briinfield.      Brunswick,  Maine,  in  six-sided  tables,  and  in 
foliated  masses. — Cleveland.     Westmoreland,  Vt. 

Species  2.    OXIDE  OF  MOLYBDENA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  straw,  or  sulphur  yellow ; 
occurs  pulverulent,  and  in  friable  crusts. 

Chemical  characters.  When  heated,  by  the  compound 
blow  pipe,  a  snow-white  oxide  is  sublimed. — Cleveland. 

It  has  not  been  analyzed,  but  according  to  the  observation 
of  Berzelius,  it  behaves  under  the  blow  pipe  like  pure  molyb- 
dic  acid. 

Localities.  Nummedalen,  in  Norway,  on  sulphuret  of  mo- 
Jybdena.  And  at  Coryburg,  in  Scotland. 

U.  S.  Brunswick,  in  Maine,  with  sulphuret  of  molybdena 

GENUS  xvi. — ANTIMONY. 

Colour  of  the  pure  metal,  white;  occurs  in  foliated  or  la- 
mellar masses,  the  lamellae  being  placed  in  irregular  direc- 
tions, often  with  broad  shining  faces,  sometimes  curved  ;  brit- 
tle, and  easily  reduced  to  a  powder ;  melting  point  800°  Fah., 
and  at  a  higher  heat,  evaporates  in  form  of  a  gray  smoke  ;  so- 
luble in  the  acids:  sp.  gr.  6.8. 

Uses.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  printing  types,  of 
speculum  metal,  of  Britannia  ware,  &c.  In  medicine  it  is 
universally  employed,  when  united  to  tartaric  acid,  under  the 
name  of  tartar  emetic. 

Its  ores  are  few,  and  its  localities  not  very  numerous. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  ANTIMONY. 

External  characters.  Colour,  tin  white,  but  on  exposure 
becomes  yellowish,  or  brownish ;  occurs  reniform,  amor- 
phous, and  in  thin  plates ;  also  crystallized  in  octohedrons, 
and  dodecahedrons  ;  lustre  brilliant ;  structure  lamellar  ; 
cleavage  easily  effected,  in  certain  directions ;  brittle :  sp. 
gr.  6.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Easily  fusible  with  a  gray  inodor- 
ous vapour.  With  borax,  it  separates  into  small  individual 
globules,  and  continues  to  emit  white  fmues  from  its  own  com- 
bustion, after  the  heat  is  removed;  on  cooling,  the  globule 
becomes  covered  with  minute  crystals  of  the  oxide  of  anti- 
mony. 

Composition.  Antimony  98  ;  silver  1 ;  iron  0.25. — Kla- 
proth. 

What  is  the  colour  of  pure  antimony  7— Is  antimony  a  brittle,  or  a 
malleable  metal  1 


MINERALOGY.  30$) 

tt  often  contains  a  little  arsenic,  and  some  specimens  leave 
a  small  globule  of  silver  on  the  charcoal,  after  the  antimony 
nas  escaped. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  antimonial  silver,  bui 
this  always  yields  a  globule  of  silver  under  the  blow  pipe.  The 
sulphuret  of  antimony  gives  the  odour  of  sulphur,  which  the 
native  does  not.  It  may  also  be  taken  for  arsenical  iron,  and 
native  bismuth.  But  the  first  emits  the  arsenical  odour,  and 
leaves  a  magnetic  globule,  and  the  bismuth  has  a  tinge  of 
copper-red. 

It  is  found  in  primitive  rocks,  and  is  a  rare  ore. 

Localities.  Sahlberg,  in  Sweden.  Dauphiny,  in  France. 
Andreasberg,  in  the  Hartz.  Allemont,  near  Grenoble. 

U.  S.  Harwinton,  Conn.,  in  broad  plates,  associated  with 
sulphuret  of  antimony. — Silliman. 

Species  2.     SULPHURET  OF  ANTIMONY. 

External  characters.  Colour,  lead  gray,  passing  into  steel 
gray:  streak  unchanged;  often  iridiscent,  from  external 
tarnish ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  delicate  threads,  or 
needles,  closely  aggregated,  and  sometimes  so  fine  as  to  re- 
semble wool ;  also,  crystallized  in  rhombic  prisms,  variously 
modified,  and  variously  terminated;  lustre  splendent;  frac- 
ture and  texture  fibrous;  yields  to  the  knife;  brittle,  and 
easily  reduced  to  powder :  sp.  gr.  4  to  4.80. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  in  a  candle.  Before  the  blow 
pipe,  emits  the  odour  of  sulphur,  and  is  mostly  volatilized,  in 
the  form  of  a  white  smoke. 

Composition.     Antimony  74;  sulphur  26. — Bergman. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  easy  fusibility  of  this  species, 
will  easily  distinguish  it  from  the  minerals  it  most  resembles, 
particularly  from  the  oxide  of  manganese.  It  differs  from 
native  antimony,  in  emitting  the  sulphureous  odour  when 
heated,  and  in  being  of  a  darker  colour. 

Sulphuret  of  antimony  is  the  ore  from  wrhich  the  antimony 
of  commerce  is  obtained.  It  is  found  in  primitive  and  secon- 
dary rocks,  associated  with  the  sulphurets  of  lead  and  zinc, 
and  with  ores  of  iron,  copper,  and  arsenic. 

Localities.  Andreasberg,  in  the  Hartz.  Freyberg,  in  Sax- 
ony. Schemnitz,  in  Hungary.  Nagyag,  in  Transylvania. 
Mexico.  England.  Scotland.  Ireland.  Spain,  &c. 

What  are  the  chemical  and  distinctive  characters  of  native  antimony? 
— What  are  the  uses  of  antimony? — What  are  the  colours  of  sulphuret  of 
antimony? — What  are  its  distinctive  characters'* — What  is  the  ore  from 
which  the  antimony  of  commerce  is  obtained  ? 


310  INTRODUCTION  TO 

U.  S.  Near  Richmond,  in  Virginia.  Near  Zanesville; 
Ohio.  Harwinton,  Conn,  with  native  antimony.  Near  South 
Hadley,  Mass.  On  Saco  river,  Maine. 

Species  3.     SULPHURETTED  OXIDE  OF  ANTIMONY. 

External  characters.  Colour,  cherry  red,  or  brownish  red, 
streak  unchanged ;  surface,  often  iridiscent,  from  tarnish ; 
occurs  in  acicular  prisms,  radiating,  or  interlacing ;  feebly 
translucent;  also,  occurs  massive,  with  a  fibrous,  or  granular 
structure  ;  lustre  metallic  adamantine  ;  brittle  :  sp.  gr.  4  to  4.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  easily,  and  is  entirely  vol- 
atilized, by  continuing  in  the  heat.  In  nitric  acid,  it  becomes 
covered  with  a  white  coating,  but  does  not  entirely  dissolve. 

Composition.  Antimony  67.50;  oxygen  10.80;  sulphur 
19.70.— Klaproth. 

It  occurs  with  the  sulphuret  of  antimony,  which  has  induced 
a  belief,  that  it  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  that  ore. 

Distinctive  characters.  Cinnabar  is  of  a  deeper,  or  scarlet 
red  colour,  and  is  volatilized  with  a  blue  flame.  Red  oxide  of 
copper  leaves  a  globule  of  the  metal  on  the  charcoal,  and  the 
red  oxide  of  tin  is  infusible.  • 

Localities.  Kapnic,  in  Transylvania.  Allemont,  in  France. 
Hungary.  Saxony.  Tuscany,  &c. 

U.  S.  Near  Leesburg,  Va.,  in  detached  masses,  in  the 
soil ;  it  has  a  deep  ruby  colour. — Hayden. 

GENUS  xvn. — CHROME. 

Colour  of  the  pure  metal,  between  tin  white,  and  steel  gray. 
It  is  obtained  from  the  native  chromate  of  iron,  with  difficulty, 
and  only  in  small  quantities  ;  when  this  metal  is  oxidated  to 
its  fullest  extent,  it  constitutes  chromic  acid,  a  crystalline  solid 
of  a  beautiful  aurora  red  colour.  The  metal  has  a  radiated, 
crystalline  texture,  and  is  hard  and  brittle :  sp.  gr.  about  6. 

Uses.  The  oxides  of  chrome,  or  chromic  acid,  form  very 
beautiful  and  useful  colours,  when  combined  with  other  metals, 
as  iron,  cobalt,  lead,  or  mercury.  Green,  yellow,  and  red 
colours,  are  produced  in  this  way,  and  are  employed  as  pig- 
ments, and  for  the  colouring  of  porcelain  ware.  The  eme- 
rald, actynolite,  and  several  other  green  minerals,  owe  their 
colours  to  oxide  of  chrome. 


What  are  the  colours  of  sulphuretted  oxide  of  antimony  ?— What  are  the 
chemical  characters  of  this  ore? — What  is  said  of  metallic  chrome? — 
What  are  the  uses  of  the  oxides  of  chrome  ? 


MINERALOGY.  311 

Species  1.    OXIDE  OF  CHROME. 

External  characters.  Colours,  bright  grass  green,  and  pale 
yellow  ;  occurs  pulverulent,  or  compact  ;  translucent,  when 
compact,  and  of  a  green  colour,  bearing  the  marks  of  crystal- 
line structure  ;  lustre  and  appearance,  like  that  of  compact 
crystalline  limestone. 

"Chemical  characters.  The  green  changes  to  yellow  by 
heat.  Gives  a  green  colour  to  borax,  and  also  to  boiling 
alkali  ;  but  the  colour  is  precipitated  by  further  boiling. 

Locality.  Unst,  one  of  the  Shetland  isles,  where  it  fills  the 
cavities  of  chromate  of  iron  —  MacCulloch. 

GENUS  xvin.  —  ARSENIC. 

Colour  of  the  metal,  bluish  white,  like  that  of  steel  ;  lustre 
brilliant  ;  brittle  ;  soft  ;  may  be  reduced  to  powder  in  a  mor- 
tar; when  heated  it  emits  the  odour  of  garlic,  and  flies  off  in 
white  fumes;  sublimes  without  melting;  oxidates,  and  turns 
dark,  on  exposure,  but  retains  its  brilliancy  for  years,  if  closely 
sealed  in  a  glass  tube:  sp.  gr.  5.7. 

Uses.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  some  metallic 
alloys,  and  its  oxides  are  employed  in  the  preparation  of  cer- 
tain paints,  in  the  colouring  of  glass;  and  in  medicine,  it  is 
used  under  the  name  of  Fowler  's  solution.  It  is  a  violent 
poison,  in  all  its  modes  of  existence,  except  in  that  of  a  pure 
metal. 

No  mines  are  wrought  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  this 
metal.  That  used  in  commerce,  which  is  the  white  oxide,  is 
chiefly  scraped,  by  condemned  criminals,  from  the  long  chim- 
neys of  the  cobalt  smelting  furnaces  in  Saxony. 


1.       NATIVE  ARSENIC. 

External  characters.  Colour,  tin  white,  inclining  to  steel 
gray,  or  lead  gray  ;  externally,  tarnished  nearly  black  ;  oc- 
curs reniform,  botryoidal,  in  plates,  and  in  concretions  :  frac- 
ture uneven  :  structure  imperfectly  foliated  ;  or  sometimes 
concentric  lamellar,  and  sometimes  with  impressions  of  crys- 
tals ;  yields  to  the  knife  ;  brittle  ;  lustre  metallic  :  sp.  gr.  5.7. 

Chemical  characters.  Burns  with  a  blue  flame,  yielding  a 
dense  white  smoke,  attended  with  the  odour  of  garlic,  and 
leaves  on  the  charcoal  a  minute  portion  of  iron,  silver,  or  gold. 

Distinctive  characters.    From  other  native  metals,  it  may 


What  is  the  colour  of  the  native  oxide  of  chrome  ? — What  are  the  chem 
ical  characters  of  the  native  oxide  of  chrome? — What  is  the  colour  of 
pure  arsenic  ? — What  are  the  uses  of  arsenic  ? 


312  INTRODUCTION  TO 

readily  be  distinguished,  by  its  beginning  to  evaporate  before 
it  melts.  Arsenical  pyrites  leave  a  magnetic  globule;  and 
arsenical  antimonial  silver  leaves  a  silver  globule,  both  of 
which  will  show  that  they  are  not  the  present  species. 

It  occurs  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  with  the  ores  of  cobalt, 
silver,  copper,  &c. 

Localities.  Koningsberg,  in  Norway.  In  the  Hartz.  Bohe- 
mia. France.  England,  &c. 

U.  S.    Martha's  Vineyard. 

Species  2.    OXIDE  OF  ARSENIC. 

External  characters.  Colour,  snow  white,  or  yellowish, 
reddish,  or  greenish  white;  occurs  earthy,  capillary,  and  in- 
vesting; also  crystallized  in  octohedrons,  and  in  quadrangular 
tables;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  octohedron  ; 
lustre  vitreous ;  texture  fibrous,  or  granular;  crystals  often 
minute  and  delicate;  translucent;  opake. 

Chemical  characters.  Gives  out  the  smell  of  garlic,  and 
finally  evaporates.  Soluble  in  about  80  parts  of  water. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  solubility  in  water  will  distin- 
guish it  from  pharmacolite,  and  other  minerals  which  it  re- 
sembles. 

Localities.  Andreasberg,  in  the  Hartz,  with  the  ores  of 
arsenic  and  lead.  Also  in  the  Pyrenees. 

This  is  a  very  rare  mineral,  and  perhaps,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  carbonate  of  barytes,  which  is  also  rare,  the  only 
instance  where  nature  has  furnished,  ready  prepared,  a  vio- 
lent poison  in  the  mineral  kingdom. 

Species  3.    SULPHURET  OF  ARSENIC. 

Of  this  species  there  are  two  varieties,  which  differ  chiefly 
in  respect  to  colour.  They  are  both  composed  of  metallic 
arsenic,  and  sulphur,  though  probably  in  different  propor- 
tions. 

Variety  1.     RED  SULPHURET  OF  ARSENIC.      REALGER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  aurora,  scarlet,  or  blood 
red  ;  occurs  amorphous,  in  concretions,  and  in  flakes,  or  crusts ; 
also  crystallized  in  the  form  of  a  four-sided  prism,  with  the 
lerminal  planes  set  obliquely  on  the  lateral  planes,  and  in  six- 
sided  prisms,  both  forms  being  subject  to  a  variety  of  modifi- 
cations, from  truncation,  and  bevelment ;  lustre  shining,  vitre- 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  native  arsenic  ? — What  is  said  of 
the  properties  of  the  native  oxide  of  arsenic? — What  are  the  colou?s  of  the 
red  sulphuret  of  arsenic  ? 


MINERALOGY.  313 

ous,  or  waxy ;  streak,  lemon  yellow ;  fracture  of  the  compacr, 
conchoiclal;  semi-transparent,  or  opake;  soft;  often  yields 
to  the  nail;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  3.30;  becomes  electric,  by  fric- 
tion. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  easily,  and  burns  with  a  blue 
flame,  and  white  smoke,  attended  with  the  odours  of  sulphur 
and  garlic.  In  nitric  acid,  it  becomes  whitish. 

Composition.     Arsenic  69  ;  sulphur  31. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  Its  colour  resembles  thai  of  chro- 
mate  of  lead,  but  the  chromate  is  much  heavier,  and  tinges 
borax  green.  The  red  ores  of  silver  and  mercury  give  a  red 
str^k,  and  seldom  give  the  odour  of  arsenic,  like  the  present 
variety.  They  are  also  heavier  than  the  present  species. 

Uses.  It  is  employed  as  a  paint,  and  the  Chinese  form  ves- 
sels, and  images  of  it. 

Variety  2.     YELLOW  SULPHURET  OF  ARSENIC.  ORPIMENT. 

External  characters.  Colour,  lemon,  or  golden  yellow ;  oc- 
curs reniform,  disseminated,  and  in  plates ;  also,  it  is  said,  in 
minute  crystals  ;  lustre  shining,  sometimes  brilliant,  and  metal- 
lic ;  structure  foliated,  or  laminated,  the  laminae  often  curved, 
and  easily  separable,  like  those  of  mica ;  flexible,  but  not 
elastic;  translucent;  by  friction  acquires  negative  electricity: 
sp.  gr.  3.4. 

Chemical  characters.  Burns,  emitting  the  fumes  of  sulphur 
and  arsenic. 

Composition.     Arsenic  57  ;  sulphur  43. — Thenard. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  most  resembles  yellow  mica,  but 
the  layers  of  mica  are  flexible  and  elastic ;  those  of  orpiment 
being  easily  broken.  Mica  also  gives  no  fumes  when  heated. 
Native  sulphur  has  not  a  foliated  structure,  like  orpiment,  and 
is  not  so  heavy. 

Uses.  Orpiment  is  employed  as  a  paint,  but  for  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  mostly  prepared  by  art. 

Both  varieties  are  found,  chiefly  in  secondary,  but  some- 
times in  primitive  rocks.  Sometimes  realger  occurs  among 
the  products  of  volcanoes. 

Localities.  Realger  is  found  in  the  Hartz,  in  the  mines  of 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary,  and  on  the  Northwest  coast 
of  America.  Also,  among  the  volcanic  matter  of  Etna,  Vesu- 
vius, and  Gaudaloupe. 


What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  realger  1 — What  are  the  external 
and  distinctive  characters  of  orpiment  ?— What  are  the  uses  of  these  two 
ores? 

37 


314  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Orpiment  is  also  found  in  Suabia,  in  Piedmont,  at  Moldavia, 
in  Hungary,  in  China,  and  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  America. 

Species  4.     HURAULITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  red,  passing  into 
reddish  brown ;  lustre  vitreous ;  primary  form  an  oblitjue 
rhombic  prism,  secondary  form,  its  primary  having  its  acute 
lateral  edges  replaced  by  dihedral  summits :  sp.  gr.  2.27. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ease  into  a  black  me- 
tallic globule,  which  is  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

Composition.  Phosphoric  acid  38 ;  protoxide  of  iron  11.10, 
protoxide  of  manganese  32.85  ;  water  18. — Dufresnoy.  % 

Locality.  Huraulite  is  found  in  little  masses  in  graphic 
granite  near  Limoges,  in  France. 

GENUS  XIX. COLUMBIUM.*       COLUMBITE. 

Columbium,  in  the  purest  state  in  which  it  has  been  obtain- 
ed, is  a  metal  of  a  dark  iron  gray  colour,  which,  when  rubbed 
against  a  fine  whetstone,  or  is  scratched  with  a  knife,  puts  on 
the  metallic  lustre.  It  scratches  glass,  is  brittle,  and  is  not 
acted  on  by  any  of  the  acids,  or  by  any  mixture  of  them :  sp. 
gr.  6. 

The  ores  of  Columbium  are  few,  and  occur  but  rarely,  and 
in  small  quantities. 

Species  1.     FERRUGINOUS  OXIDE  OF  COLUMBIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  and  brownish,  or 
bluish  black;  occurs  amorphous,  and  in  small  crystalline 
masses,  the  forms  of  which  are  imperfect  four  and  six-sided 
prisms,  sometimes  flattened,  and  variously  modified  by  trunca- 
tion ;  structure  imperfectly  foliated;  brittle;  lustre  a  little 
shining,  but  not  metallic ;  opake  :  sp.  gr.  6  to  7. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  suffers  no  change  by 
the  blow  pipe  alone.  Partly  soluble  in  heated  sulphuric  acid. 
— Mohs.  If  fused  with  potash,  mixed  with  a  little  borax,  the 
mass  spreads  on  the  charcoal,  and  passes  from  a  brownish  to 
a  greenish  colour.  With  borax  it  dissolves  with  difficulty, 
and  forms  a  bottle  green  glass. 

Composition.  (From  New  London.)  Oxide  of  columbium 
87;  oxide  of  iron  21. — Hatchett. 

(From  Sweden.)  Oxide  of  columbium  85 ;  oxide  of  iron 
12;  oxide  of  manganese  8. —  Vauquelin. 

*  From  its  being  first  discovered  in  America. 

What  are  the  external  and  chemical  characters  of  ferruginous  oxide  of 
columbium? — Where  was  columbium  first  discovered  ? 


MINERALOGY.      ,  315 

Columbium  was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  Hatchett,  in  a  speci- 
men of  unexn  mined  ore,  said  to  have  been  sent  from  Gov. 
Winthrop,  of  Conned  icut,  to  Sir  Hans  Sloane.  It  was  depos- 
ited in  the  British  Museum,  and  analyzed  by  Mr.  Hatchett, 
in  1801,  who  found  that  it  was  the  ore  of  a  new  metal,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Columbium.,  in  honour  of  this 
country. 

After  the  discovery  of  Mr.  Hatchett,  Mr.  Ekeberg,  a  Swe- 
dish chemist,  discovered  the  oxide  of  a  new  metal,  in  a  speci- 
men of  ore  from  Finland,  and  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Tantalum.  The  ore  itself  he  called  Tantalite. 

In  the  year  1809,  Dr.  Wollaston,  having  obtained  specimens 
of  the  ores  of  the  two  new  metals  from  America,  and  from 
Finland,  discovered  that  they  differed  only  in  respect  to  local- 
ities, and  that  they  were  ores  of  the  same  metal. 

Localities.     Kemito,  in  Finland.     Bodenmais,  in  Bavaria. 

U.  S.  New  London,  and  Haddam,  Conn.  At  Haddam,  it 
is  imbedded  in  granite,  with  garnet,  chrysoberyl,  and  beryl. — • 
Torrey.  Warwick,  N.  Y. — Robinsoji.  Acworth,  N.  H. 
Middletown,  Conn.,  where  it  occurs  in  regular  crystals,  and 
in  considerable  crystallized  masses. 

GENUS  xx. — CERIUM.* 

The  characters  of  this  substance,  as  a  pure  metal,  are  little 
known.  The  chemists  have  demonstrated,  that  such  a  metal 
exists,  but  its  refractory  nature  is  such,  as  to  defy  every  means, 
heretofore  used,  to  reduce  it  to  ths  state  of  a  pure  metal. 

Its  ores  are  various,  but  most  of  them  are  rare,  and  have 
been  found  in  only  small  quantities. 

Species  1.     SILICIOUS  OXIDE  or  CERIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  rose  red,  brownish  red,  and 
flesh  red,  passing  into  gray;  streak  nearly  white ;  occurs 
massive  and  disseminated;  fracture  compact;  splintery; 
translucent,  or  opake ;  brittle;  texture  granular;  lustre  shi- 
ning; scratches  glass ;  yields  with  difficulty  to  the  knife:  sp. 
gr.'~4.9. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone;  with  bo  rax  dissolves 
into  an  orange  coloured  globule,  which  grows  pale  on  cooling. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  cerium  68.59  ;  silex  18;  oxide  of 
iron  2;  lime  1.25;  water  and  carbonic  acid  9. 60. — Heisinger. 

*  From  the  planet  Ceres. 
What  is  sale7  of  cerium  as  a  metal  1 


316  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Locality.  Westmoreland,  in  Sweden,  with  bismuth,  mica, 
hornblende,  and  molybdena. 

Species  2.     ALLANITE.* 

External  characters.  Colours,  brownish,  and  greenish 
black;  powder  greenish  gray;  occurs  massive,  and  crystal- 
lized in  four  and  six-sided  prisms,  variously  terminated ; 
fracture  imperfect  conchoidal ;  lustre  shining  resino-metallic  ; 
scratches  glass,  and  gives  sparks  with  steel ;  opake :  sp.  gr. 
3.5  to  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  greenish  yellow,  and  some- 
times intumesces,  and  melts  into  a  slag'. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  cerium  33;  oxide  of  iron  25.40; 
silex35.40;  lime  9.20  ;  alumine  4.10. — Thomson. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  gadonolite,  but  ac- 
cording to  Bournon,  gadolonite,  in  thin  pieces,  is  translucent, 
and  of  a  fine  green  colour,  while  the  present  species  is  com- 
monly opake,  but  when  translucent,  is  of  a  yellowish  brown 
colour. 

Locality.     West  Greenland,  in  a  granite  rock. 

Species  3.     ITTRIO-CALCAREOUS  OXIDE  OF  CERIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish  white,  grayish  red, 
and  violet  blue;  colours  sometimes  mingled  in  the  same  spe- 
cimen ;  occurs  amorphous,  and  in  crusts:  texture  granular; 
structure  lamellar;  lustre  glistening  ;  fracture  uneven  ;  yields 
to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  3.44. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  white,  but  is  infusible  alone. 
On  adding  a  little  gypsum,  it  fuses  into  a  bead,  which  becomes 
white  on  cooling.  In  fine  powder,  soluble  in  muriatic  acid, 
forming  a  yellow  solution. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  cerium  1822;  ittria  9.11;  lime 
47.63;  fluoric  acid  25. — Berzelius. 

Localities.     Finbo,  in  Sweden,  disseminated  in  quartz. 

U.  S.  Franklin,  N.  J.,  discovered  by  Col.  Gibbs.— Sil- 
liman. 

Species  4.     FLUATE  OF  CERIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellow,  pale  red,  or  deep 
red ;  occurs  in  small  masses,  in  plates,  and  in  six-sided  prisms  ; 
soft,  some  of  the  varieties  yielding  to  the  nail. 

This  is  not  quite  a  pure  fluate,  but  contains  a  little  ittria,  or 
thorina. 

*  In  honour  of  Thomas  Allan,  Esq.  of  Edinburgh. 

What  are  the  species  of  cerium  ore?  described  1 


MINERALOGY.  317 

GENUS  xxi. — TITANIUM. 

This  metal  has  hardly  been  seen  in  its  pure  metallic  state, 
Laugier  exposed  its  oxide,  mixed  with  combustible  matter,  to 
the  highest  heat  of  a  forge  for  six  hours,  when  a  mass  full  of 
pores  was  obtained.  This  he  considered  metallic  titanium. 
It  was  brittle,  with  a  bright  lustre,  and  in  thin  pieces,  elastic : 
sp.  gr.  unknown. 

The  ores  of  titanium  are  considerably  numerous,  and  are 
widely  disseminated. 

No  use  has  yet  been  made  of  any  of  them. 

Species  1.     OXIDE  or  TITANIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  reddish  brown,  yellow- 
ish red,  and  reddish  gray;  also,  indigo  blue,  pale  blue,  and 
dark  red;  occurs  massive,  but  more  commonly  crystallized  in 
octohedrons,  or  in  prismatic  crystals,  imperfectly  terminated ; 
fracture  granular,  or  uneven,  in  one  direction,  and  laminated 
in  another;  texture  foliated;  lustre  metallic,  or  adamantine; 
opake,  or  translucent;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  3.8  to  4.24. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone;  with  borax,  melts 
into  a  transparent  globule,  either  reddish,  or  tinged  with  vari- 
ous colours,  according  to  the  proportion  of  borax. 

Composition.    Titanium  66.05  ;  oxygen  33.95. — Rose. 

It  is  a  pure  oxide  of  titanium. 

Variety  1.    RED  OXIDE  OF  TITANIUM. 

External  characters.  Colours,  red,  reddish  brown,  or  cop- 
per red,  sometimes  gray  on  the  surface ;  occurs  crystallized, 
in  four,  six,  or  eight-sided  prisms,  sometimes  terminated  by 
four-sided  pyramids,  and  sometimes  with  rounded  terminations; 
crystals,  often  long,  straight,  acicular,  and  striated ;  also  oc- 
curs in  minute,  reticulated  crystals  ;  and  in  bent,  or  genicu- 
lated  prisms;  structure  lamellar;  lustre  adamantine,  or  me- 
tallic ;  fracture  conchoidal,  or  uneven  ;  translucent ;  scratches 
glass;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  4.24. 
Pig.  177. 

Fig.  177.  A  geniculated  crystal,  or  two  crys- 
tals united  base  to  base,  forming  an  obtuse  angle, 
or  knee.  In  other  respects,  there  is  nothing  pe- 
culiar in  the  prisms  which  this  variety  presents. 


What  is  said  of  titanium  as  a  metal  ?— What  are  the  colours  of  the  as- 
ide of  titanium  ? 

27* 


318  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  by  itself;  with  borax,  melts 
into  a  reddish  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  It  is  a  pure  oxide  of  titanium. — Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  silico-calcareous 
oxide  of  titanium,  in  being-  more  transparent,  in  occurring  in 
more  perfect  crystals,  and  in  being  harder.  It  resembles  the 
red  garnet,  but  this  is  fusible  alone.  The  oxide  of  tin  has  a 
greater  specific  gravity,  and  decrepitates  strongly  when 
heated. 

Titanium,  in  connexion  with  some  other  substances,  often 
forms  very  beautiful  specimens. 

The  reticulated  variety,  composed  of  capillary  or  acicular 
crystals,  is  found  investing,  or  penetrating  other  minerals. 
Sometimes  it  shoots  through  limpid  pieces  of  quartz,  the  crys- 
tals crossing  each  other,  and  forming  a  kind  of  net-work ; 
hence  the  name,  reticulated.  Such  specimens,  when  polished, 
sometimes  display  the  crystals  of  titanite,  of  the  size  of  needles, 
or  even  hairs,  of  a  blood  red  colour,  and  appearing  as  though 
they  were  shot  into  their  places,  when  the  quartz  was  per- 
fectly soft.  Some  of  these  specimens  are  singularly  curious 
and  beautiful.  • 

Titanite  occurs  chiefly  in  veins,  in  primitive  rocks,  and  par- 
ticularly in  granite,  gneiss,  and  quartz. 

Localities.  St.  Gothard,  often  reticulated  in  quartz.  Taren- 
tain,  in  spathose  iron.  Carpathian  mountains,  in  Hungary. 
Arendal,  in  Norway.  Cairngorm,  in  Scotland.  Fernbo, 
near  Sahla,  in  Sweden. 

U.  S.  Near  Richmond,  Va.,  compact,  blood  red,  in  white 
quartz. — Bruce.  Also  in  the  counties  of  Randolph,  Amherst, 
Campbell,  and  Bedford,  Va.  At  some  of  these  places,  fine 
specimens  are  found,  some  of  which  are  near  four  inches 
long. — T.  D.  Porter.  Near  Baltimore,  Md.  London  Grove, 
Chester  county,  Penn.  Also,  in  Delaware  county,  and  at 
East  Marlborough.  Bergen  county,  near  Schuyler's  copper 
mine,  N.  J.,  imbedded  in  limestone.  Its  lustre  is  highly  me- 
tallic.— Bruce.  Near  New-Haven,  and  at  Oxford,  and  Litch 
field,  Conn.  At  Oxford,  it  is  geniculated,  and  at  Litchfield, 
it  is  sometimes  reticulated.  Woithington,  and  Leyden  Mass. 
At  Leyden,  the  crystals  are  four  and  eight-sided  prisms. 
Near  Kingsbridge,  and  on  Hudson  river,  N.  Y.,  colour,  from 
dark  blood  red  to  light  red,  sometimes  geniculated,  and  some- 
times acicular. — Bruce.  Windsor,  Mass.,  in  great  abundance. 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  titanium  ? 


MINERALOGY.  319 

Species  3.     SILICO-CALCAREOUS  OXIDE  OF  TITANIUM. 

SPHENE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  reddish  gray,  lilac  gray, 
chestnut  brown,  and  blackish  gray;  colours  dull ;  also  green- 
ish, yellowish  green,  and  greenish  white;  occurs  in  masses, 
composed  of  angular,  prismatic  pieces,  with  distinct  joints, 
easily  separable  ;  and  in  crystals,  of  which  the  primary  form 
is  an  oblique,  rhombic  prism;  secondary  forms  numerous; 
viz.  an  oblique-angled,  four-sided  prism,  with  an  uncertain 
number  of  terminal  faces ;  sometimes  this  prism  is  bevelled 
on  the.  lateral  angles,  and  sometimes  on  the  angles  of  the  ex- 
tremities ;  sometimes  the  crystals  are  compressed  into  cunei- 
form shapes,  and  sometimes  by  truncation  they  take  nearly  a 
hexahedral  form;  structure  foliated,  with  broad, smooth  faces; 
lustre  shining,  but  scarcely  metallic ;  cleavage  easy;  cross 
fracture  uneven;  translucent  on  the  edges;  crystals  seldom 
very  distinct,  but  commonly  grouped  and  compressed  ;  scratch- 
es glass  ;  does  not  yield  to  the  knife  :  sp.  gr.  3.50. 

Chemical  characters.  In  small  fragments.it  is  fusible,  with 
slight  effervescence,  into  a  dark  coloured  enamel.  The  dark 
varieties  turn  yellow  before  melting.  With  borax,  it  turns 
yellowish,  and  sinks  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  globule,  but 
scarcely  dissolves. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  titanium  35  ;  silex  35  ;  lime  30. — 
Klaproth. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  the  red  oxide  of  tita- 
nium, in  colour,  and  in  crystalline  form.  The  oxide  of  tin 
has  more  of  the  metallic  lustre,  and  is  much  heavier  than  the 
present  species.  The  brown  garnet  is  much  harder,  and  does 
not  possess  its  laminated  structure.  - 

It  occurs  chiefly  in  primitive  rocks,  and  is  found  in  consid- 
erable quantities,  at  various  localities.  Sometimes  it  forms  a 
part  of  the  rock  in  which  it  is  found. 

Localities.  Passau,  in  Bavaria.  Arendal,  in  Norway, 
where  it  is  found  with  magnetic  iron,  epidote,  hornblende,  and 
augite.  It  also  occurs  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  &c. 

U.  S.  Newton,  Sussex  county,  N.  J.  in  yellowish  rhom- 
boidal  prisms.  Also  at  Wantage,  in  the  same  county.  Kings- 
bridge.  On  Staten  Island.  Near  Peekskill.  At  Ticondero- 
ga,  and  near  Lake  George,  N.  Y.  Also  at  Cold  Spring,  N. 
Y.  where  it  presents  the  rhomboidal  prismatic  form,  and  from 


What  are  the  colours  of  spheneT— What  is  the  composition  of  sphenel 
—What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  sphene? 


320  INTRODUCTION  TO 

whence  magnificent  specimens  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  and 
presenting-  broad  flat  faces,  of  several  inches  in  extent,  are 
found.  Noble  specimens  from  this  locality,  are  among  the 
collection  of  Dr.  Barrett,  of  Middletown,  who  was  its  discov- 
erer. Petapsco  Falls,  Md.  And  also  at  Bare  Hills,  near 
Baltimore.  Near  the  falls  of  Schuylkill,  five  miles  from 
Philadelphia.  Also  at  London  Grove,  in  Chester  County. 
Trumbull,  Conn.  Bolton,  Mass.  Edensville,  and  Amity, 
New  York. 

Species  4.     CRICKLONITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  velvet  black ;  occurs  in 
small  crystals  in  form  of  an  acute  rhomb  with  truncated  sum- 
mits ;  cleavage  perfect  in  one  direction ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
lustre  imperfectly  metallic;  opake;  scratches  carbonate  oi 
lime,  but  not  glass:  sp.  gr.  4.66. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  and  unalterable  by  the  blow 
pipe;  with  borax  behaves  like  pure  iron. 

Composition.  Titanic  acid  46.67;  oxide  of  iron  47.08; 
oxide  of  manganese  2.39  ;  lime  0.25  ;  magnesia  0.60;  oxide 
of  chrome  0.38;  silica  2.80. 

Localities.  Ilmen  mountains,  in  the  Ural.  Department 
of  Isere,  in  France.  Valley  of  Galstein,  in  Saltsburgh. 

U.  S.  Amity,  N.  Y.,  imbedded  in  white  limestone  and 
serpentine,  with  spinel,  and  brucite.  The  crystals  are  black, 
and  have  a  metallic  lustre.  Washington,  Conn.,  imbedded  in 
a  vein  of  quartz. 

GENUS  xxii. — TELLURIUM.* 

When  pure,  this  metal  is  grayish  white,  between  the  colours 
of  zinc  and  lead ;  texture  laminated  like  antimony,  which  it 
also  resembles,  in  some  of  its  properties.  It  melts  at  a  tempe- 
rature somewhat  above  600°  Fah. :  sp.  gr.  6. 1 1 ;  brittle, 
and  easily  reduced  to  powder.  Under  the  blow  pipe,  it  burns 
with  a  bluish,  or  greenish  flame,  and  is  volatilized,  without  the 
pungent  odour,  resembling  that  of  horse-radish,  by  which  the 
native  tellurium  is  distinguished.  It  is  soluble  in  the  acids. 

It  is  found  only  in  the  native  state,  mixed,  or  alloyed  with 
other  metals. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  TELLURIUM. 

External  characters.    Colour,  tin  white,  passing  into  lead 

*  From  the  Latin,  Tellus,  the  Earth. 

What  is  the  colour  of  pure  tellurium  ? — In  what  state  is  this  metal 
found? 


MINERALOGY:  s^ 

gray;  occurs  massive,  and  in  minute  crystals,  which  are  com- 
monly aggregated,  or  grouped  ;  primary  form  unkno\vn,  owing 
to  the  minuteness  of  the  crystals ;  secondary  forms,  the  octo- 
hedron,  variously  modified ;  also  occurs  in  crystalline  grains, 
and  plates ;  lustre,  strongly  metallic ;  structure  foliated ; 
yields  to  the  knife;  brittle:  sp.  gr.  5.7  to  6.11. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  and  volatile,  with  a  dense 
white  vapour.  Emits  the  smell  of  horse-radish,  only  when  it 
is  alloyed  with  selenium. 

Composition.  Tellurium  92.55;  iron  7.20;  gold  0.25. — 
Klaprolh. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  does  not  occur  like  native  anti- 
mony, in  broad  foliated  plates,  neither  is  it  as  hard,  or  as  hea- 
vy, as  antimony.  Its  colour  will  distinguish  it  from  native 
bismuth. 

Localities.  Freebay,  in  Transylvania,  where  it  is  found  in 
a  gangue  of  quartz  and  porphyry. 

U.  S.  Huntington,  in  Conn.,  associated  with  ferruginous 
oxide  of  tungsten,  native  bismuth,  and  native  silver. — Silliman. 

Variety  1.  AURO-ARGENTIFEROUS  NATIVE  TELLURIUM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  sometimes  ap- 
proaching tin  white ;  occurs  crystallized  in  the  form  of  four 
or  six-sided  prisms,  sometimes  variously  modified;  lustre  me- 
tallic; structure  foliated;  crystals  very  minute ;  fracture  un- 
even ;  yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  5.7. 

The  crystals  of  this  variety  are  arranged  so  as  to  resemble 
written  characters,  hence  the  name  graphic  tellurium. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  gray  globule,  with  the 
emission  of  white  vapour,  which  covers  the  charcoal,  and  is 
an  oxide  of  tellurium.  Finally  there  remains  on  the  charcoal 
a  globule  of  malleable  metal,  which  is  an  alloy  of  gold  and 
silver. 

Composition.  Tellurium  60;  gold  30;  silver  10. — Klaproth. 

Locality.  Offenbanya,  in  Transylvania,  only,  where  it  oc- 
curs with  native  gold,  gray  copper,  and  iron  pyrites,  in  por- 
phyry. 

This  is  a  valuable  ore,  and  is  worked  for  the  gold  and  sil- 
ver it  contains. 

GENUS  xxin. — TUNGSTEN. 

This  metal  has  scarcely  been  reduced  to  its  pure  metallic 
state.  In  nature  it  is  found  highly  oxygenated,  and  perform- 

What  are  the  distinctive  characters  of  native  tellurium  ?— What  is  the 
composition  of  auro-argcntiferous  native  tellurium? 


322  INTRODUCE  ION  TO 

ing  the  office  of  an  acid,  forming  the  tungstates  of  iron  nnd 
lime.  It  is  also  found  in  the  state  of  an  oxide.  According  to 
Joyce,  its  sp.  gr.  is  17.15. 

Species  1.    OXIDE  OF  TUNGSTEN. — Silliman. 

External  characters.  Colour,  various  shades  of  yellow,  as 
orange,  or  chrome  yellow;  occurs  massive,  and  pulverulent; 
fracture  of  the  massive  conchoidal,  or  small  foliated ;  lustre 
adamantine ;  brittle :  sp.  gr.,  when  pure,  6 ;  has  neither  taste 
nor  smell. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  insoluble  in  acids. 
Soluble  in  warm  liquid  ammonia,  from  whence  it  is  precipi- 
tated white,  by  acids,  but  becomes  yellow  by  standing. 

Locality.  It  has  been  found  only  at  Huntington,  in  Conn., 
in  a  gangue  of  quartz,  at  Lane's  mine.  It  is  associated  with 
the  other  ores  of  tungsten,  all  the  known  varieties  of  which 
are  found  at  the  same  locality. 

This  new  ore  of  tungsten  was  discovered  by  Benj.  Silliman, 
LL.D.,  of  New-Haven,  and  by  him  first  described  in  his 
Journal  of  Science. 

Species  2.    TUNGSTATE  OF  IRON.    WOLFRAM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brownish  black,  or  nearly 
black;  occurs  massive,  and  crystallized;  primitive  form, 
which  it  sometimes  presents,  the  rectangular  four-sided  prism; 
modifications  various ;  sometimes  the  crystals  are  terminated 
by  truncated  pyramids;  sometimes  the  prism  is  so  modified  as 
to  have  ten  sides ;  and  sometimes  it  is  in  broad  six-sided  pyra- 
mids, terminated  by  four-sided  summits;  structure  foliated: 
lustre  somewhat  metallic;  when  massive,  it  presents  the  as- 
pect of  manganese,  or  masses  of  iron  ore  ;  yields  to  the  knife  • 
opake ;  very  heavy :  sp.  gr.  7. 1 5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible,  with  difficulty,  into  a  dark 
scoria  ;  easily  soluble  in  glass  of  borax. 

Composition.  Tungstic  acid  78.77;  protoxide  of  iron  18.32; 
protoxide  of  manganese  6.22  ;  silex  1.25. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  oxide  of  tin,  but  this, 
by  the  continued  action  of  the  blow  pipe,  is  reducible  to  the 
metallic  state.  It  also  resembles  the  carbonate  and  oxide  of 
iron,  but  these  are  magnetic,  or  become  so  when  heated. 

Localities.  It  occurs  in  Cornwall,  in  all  the  tin  mines ; 
also,  according  to  Mohs,  in  almost  every  one  of  the  Saxon 
and  Bohemian  tin  mines,  and  in  Siberia. 

In  what  state  is  tungsten  found? — What  are  the  colours  of  the  oxide 
of  tungsten? — Where  has  this  ore  been  found? — What  is  the  appearance 
of  the  tungstate  of  iron?— What  is  its  composition  ? 


MINERALOGY.  323 

U.  S.  Huntington,  Conn.,  where  it  is  found  massive,  and  in 
octahedral  crystals. — Silliman.  Also,  at  Lane's  mine,  Mon- 
roe, and  at  Trumbull,  Conn. 

Species  3.    CALCAREOUS  OXIDE  OF  TUNGSTEN. 

External  characters.  Colours,  white,  passing  into  yellow- 
ish gray,  and  reddish  brown ;  occurs  crystallized,  and  mas- 
sive; primitive  form,  the  acute  octohedron ;  secondary  forms, 
the  octohedron,  bounded  by  isosceles  triangles;  the  cunieform 
octohedron,  and  the  regular  octohedron,  variously  modified 
by  truncation  ;  structure  imperfectly  foliated  ;  lustre  vitreous, 
or  adamantine ;  translucent;  yields  to  the  knife;  brittle:  sp. 
gr.  5  to  6. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  decrepitates,  and  turns 
white  and  opake.  By  digestion  with  nitric  acid,  it  forms  a 
yellow  powder,  which  is  the  peroxide  of  tungsten.  With  bo- 
rax it  forms  a  white  transparent  glass. 

Composition.  Tungstic  acid  80.42  ;  lime  19.40. — Berzelius. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
light  varieties  of  the  oxide  of  tin  by  the  yellow  powder  which 
it  forms  with  nitric  acid. — The  carbonate  of  lead  effervesces 
with  acids,  the  tungstate  of  lime  does  not  effervesce.  The 
sulphate  of  barytes  is  fusible,  and  'is  insoluble  in  acids. 

This  ore  is  found  in  primitive  rocks  only,  and  is  associated 
with  the  ores  of  tin,  tungstate  of  iron,  hesmatite  and  arsenic. 

Localities.  Oisans,  in  France,  Cornwall,  in  England,  Bits- 
berg,  in  Sweden,  &c. 

U.  S.  Huntington,  Conn.,  in  a  gangue  of  quartz,  with  the 
oxides  of  tungsten. 

(Fo#  a  particular  account  of  the  ores  of  tungsten,  as  they 
occur  in  Huntington,  see  Silliman's  Journal,  vol.  1.) 

GENUS  xxiv. — PALLADIUM.* 

Colour,  grayish  white,  much  resembling  that  of  platina.  It 
is  ductile,  without  much  elasticity,  lustre  metallic;  structure 
fibrous,  occurs  native  and  alloying  native  platina. 

Species].    NATIVE  PALLADIUM. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  inclining  to  sil- 
ver white;  occurs  in  grains,  composed  of  diverging  fibres; 
lustre  metallic:  sp.  gr.  11.8  to  12.14. 

*  From  the  planet  Pallas. 

What  are  the  colours,  and  what  the  composition  of  calcareous  oxide  of 
tungsten?— What  is  the  colour  of  palladium  7 


324  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  melts  with  sul- 
phur, or  with  arsenic,  into  a  brittle  mass.  With  nitro-muri- 
atic  acid,  it  forms  a  deep  red  solution,  from  which  it  is  pre- 
cipitated in  the  metallic  state  by  all  the  metals,  except  gold, 
silver,  and  platina. 

Distinctive  characters.  The  red  solution,  which  it  forms 
with  aqua-regia,  will  distinguish  it  from  all  the  metals  which 
it  resembles. 

GENUS  xxv. — IRIDIUM.* 
Alloy  of  Iridium  and  Osmium. —  Wollaston. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish  white,  a  little 
darker  than  platina ;  occurs  in  flattish  grains,  and  according 
to  Mohs,  in  six-sided  prisms,  with  six-sided  pyramids,  com- 
bined in  a  parallel  position,  with  isosceles ;  lustre  metallic ; 
brittle;  harder  than  platina ;  structure  foliated :  sp.  gr.  19.5. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  nitre,  when  it  becomes 
black,  but  again  acquires  its  original  colour  if  heated  on  char- 
coal. Not  dissolved  by  aqua-regia,  until  after  fusion  with 
potash  or  soda. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  platina,  but  platina  is 
malleable  and  soluble  in  aqua-regia. 

This  metal  is  an  alloy  o/  iridium  and  osmium,  and  is  found 
with  native  platina  in  South  America. 

Of  Osmium  little  is  known  in  its  metallic  state.  Its  oxide 
has  been  obtained  by  dissolving  platina  in  nitro-muriatic  acid, 
and  distilling  the  black  powder  which  remains  with  nitre, 
It  possesses  some  properties  different  from  those  of  any  other 
metal.  • 

Rhodium.  This  metal,  like  those  above  named,  has  been 
but  little  examined.  Its  specific  gravity  is  11.  It  is  infusi- 
ble alone  even  by  the  oxy -hydrogen  blow  pipe.  With  arsenic 
it  becomes  easily  fusible,  and  after  long  continued  heat,  the 
arsenic  is  driven  off,  leaving  the  rhodium  in  a  striated  porous 
mass.  It  is  soluble  in  the  acids,  but  not  malleable.  The 
solutions  do  not  crystallize,  but  when  mixed  with  water,  or 
alcohol,  give  a  fine  red  colour. 

GENUS  xxvi. — CADMIUM. 

This  metal  has  been  obtained  from  some  of  the  ores  of 
zinc,  in  which  it  exists  in  small  quantities.  Its  colour  is  tin 

*  From  iris,  the  rainbow,  in  allusion  to  the  change  of  colours  it  gives 
while  dissolving  in  acids. 

What  are  its  distinctive  characters  ?— What  is  said  of  iridium  and 
Munium? 


M1NERALOGV.  326 

white,  it  is  malleable  and  ductile,  and  bears  a  fine  polish.  By 
the  blow  pipe,  it  readily  inflames,  and  passes  off  in  the  form 
of  a  dense  vapour,  which,  when  collected,  is  found  to  be  a 
brown  oxide  of  the  metal.     Sp.  gr.  of  the  pure  metal  8.6. 
This  metal  was  discovered  a  few  years  since,  by  Stromeyer. 

GENUS  xxvu. — SELENIUM. 

This  metal  was  first  noticed  in  some  iron  ore  from  Fahlun, 
by  Berzelius.  When  pure  it  is  of  a  deep  brown  colour,  with  a 
metallic  lustre.  It  fuses  at  220°  Fah.,  and  if  slowly  cooled 
assumes  a  crystalline  texture.  When  warmed,  it  becomes  so 
soft  as  to  be  kneaded  by  the  fingers,  and  may  even  be  drawn 
out  into  threads.  It  sublimes  before  the  blow  pipe,  giving  out 
a  strong  disagreeable  odour,  resembling  that  of  horse-radish 
This  odour  is  a  good  test  of  the  presence  of  selenium. 

CLASS  VII. 
COMBUSTIBLE  MINERALS. 

The  minerals  belonging  to  this  class,  combine  with  oxygen, 
aiid  undergo  combustion,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  not 
requiring,  like  most  of  the  metals,  a  high  temperature,  or  the 
aid  of  pure  oxygen,  to  effect  their  combustion.  The  class  in- 
cludes substances  widely  differing  from  each  other,  in  their 
external  characters,  and  chemical  properties.  In  general, 
their  chief  ingredients  are  sulphur  and  carbon. 

Species  1.     NATIVE  SULPHUR. 

External  characters.  Colours,  yellow,  passing  into  orange, 
greenish,  or  grayish  ;  occurs  in  nodular  masses,  and  in  crys- 
cals;  form,  an  acute  pyramidal  octohedron,  with  scalene  trian- 
gular faces,  and  its  varieties;  fracture  uneven,  passing  into 
splintery;  translucent,  or  transparent;  lustre  shining,  resin- 
ous ;  acquires  negative  electricity,  by  friction  ;  gives  the  sul- 
phureous odour,  when  rubbed:  sp.  gr.  2;  refraction  double, 
through  parallel  faces. 
Fig.  178. 

Fig.  178.     The  pyramidal  octohedron,  with  scalene, 
triangular  faces.     This  is  the  primitive  form. 


What  is  said  of  cadmium  and  selenium  ? — What  are  the  principal  sub- 
stances belonging  to  class  vii  ? — What  are  the  crystalline  forms  of  native 
sulphur  ? 

28 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig.  179.    The  same,  with  the  summits  truncated. 


Pig.  180. 


Fig.  180.     The  same,  with  the  summits  replaced 
by  four  triangular' planes,  forming  a  low  pyramid 


Fig.  181.     In  this  form  the  solid  angles  are  re- 
placed by  rhombic  planes. 


Chemical  characters.  It  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  giving 
out  sulphureous  acid  gas,  which  has  the  property  of  bleaching 
vegetable  substances. 

It  is  found  in  veins,  in  primitive,  and  secondary  rocks. 

Localities.  Murcia,  and  Arragon,  in  Spain,  where  it  occurs 
in  splendid  crystals,  in  a  deposite  of  gypsum  and  marie. 
Suabia,  Hungary,  and  Peru,  in  mica-slate,  and  granite.  Gib- 
raltar, in  swinestone. 

U.  S.  At  the  coal  mines,  near  Richmond,  Va.  Chatham, 
Conn,  of  a  greenish  colour,  in  masses,  intermixed  with  quartz. 
Barren  hill,  Montgomery  County,  Penn.  granular,  or  pulveru- 
lent, with  reddish  white  quartz. — Sheffer.  In  the  waters  of 
Clifton  springs,  Farrnington,  N.  Y. — Mitchell.  Also  near 
West  Point,  in  the  cavities  of  a  ferruginous  granite  rock. — 
Douglass. 

Species  2.     VOLCANIC  SULPHUR. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellow,  or  yellowish  red  ; 
occurs  massive,  investing,  cellular,  and  in  small  crystals,  of 
the  same  form  as  those  of  native  sulphur.  In  its  other  char- 
acters it  agrees  with  native  sulphur. 

It  is  found  in  the  fissures  of  lava,  in  volcanic  countries. 

Localities.  Iceland,  Italy,  Gaudaloupe,  Nevis,  Solfatara, 
and  more  or  less  in  almost  every  volcanic  district. 


MINERALOGY.  327 

Volcanic  sulphur  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  decompo- 
sition of  metallic  sulphurets,  by  the  heat  of  burning  mountains. 
It  is  found  lining  the  fissures  of  lava,  and  other  volcanic  pro- 
ducts, being  elevated  from  the  depths  below,  by  sublimation. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  deposite  of  volcanic  sulphur,  is 
that  of  Solfatara,  near  Naples,  in  a  kind  of  sunken  plain,  sur- 
rounded by  rocks,  which  is  regarded  as  the  crater  of  an  an- 
cient volcano  ;  and  from  it,  since  the  age  of  Pliny,  has  been 
obtained  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  sulphur  used  in  Eu- 
rope.— Phillips. 

In  the  plain  within  the  crater  of  Solfatara,  smoke  issues 
from  many  parts,  as  also  from  its  sides ;  here,  by  means  of 
stones  and  tiles,  heaped  over  the  crevices  through  which  the 
smoke  passes,  they  collect  sal  ammoniac ;  and  from  the  sand 
of  the  plain  they  extract  sulphur  and  alum. — Hamilton. 

Species  3.    DIAMOND. 

External  characters.  Colourless,  or  of  a  yellowish,  bluish, 
yellowish  green,  clove  brown,  brownish  black,  Prussian  blue, 
or  rose  red  colour  ;  occurs  crystallized,  and  in  roundish  grains, 
which  often  present  indications  of  crystalline  faces  ;  form,  the 
octohedron,  with  its  varieties;  faces  often  convex;  structure 
perfectly  lamellar,  with  cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of 
an  octohedron ;  transparent,  translucent,  or  opake  :  sp.  gr.  3.5. 
It  is  the  hardest  of  all  known  substances.  Refraction  simple. 

Chemical  characters.  At  a  white  heat  its  combustion  is 
slowly  effected.  When  burned  in  oxygen  gas,  the  combina- 
aon  forms  carbonic  acid  gas,  hence  its  composition  is  pure 
carbon. 

The  secondary  forms  of  the  diamond  are  very  numerous. 
The  following  are  among  the  most  common. 

Fig.  182. 

Fig.  182.    The  primitive  form,  a  regular  oc- 
tohedron. 


Fig.  183.  This  figure  is  intended  to  exhibitr 
the  laminated  structure  of  the  diamond,  when 
cleaved. 


What  is  the  origin  of  volcanic  sulphur? — What  is  the  chief  locality  of 
the  sulphur  of  commerce  ? — What  are  the  colours  of  the  diamond  ? — What 
are  the  chemical  characters  of  the  diamond? — What  are  the  crystalline 
tonus  of  the  diamond  ? 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


Fig".  184.  The  octohedron,  with  the  edges  re- 
placed by  interrupted,  narrow,  convex  surfaces. 
This  is  the  most  common  truncated  variety. 


Pig  185.  The  primitive  octohedron,  so  modi- 
fled  as  to  present  forty-eight  curvilinear  faces,  each 
face  of  the  primitive  being  divided,  by  elevated 
edges,  into  six  smaller  ones. 

The  mode  of  searching  for  diamonds  in  Brazil  is  described 
by  Mawe.  In  that  country,  the  diamond  mines  are  the  beds 
of  certain  rivers  which  in  the  summer  season  become  dry. 
During  this  season,  the  gravel,  or  soil,  which  has  been  depos- 
ited by  the  heavy  rains,  is  removed,  and  placed  in  heaps  on 
the  nearest  plain.  When  the  rain  commences,  and  the  water 
becomes  abundant,  the  miners  wash  this  soil  in  small  conical 
bowls,  until  all  the  mud  and  earthy  particles  are  carried  off, 
and  the  gravel  is  entirely  clean.  It  is  then  carefully  searched 
for  the  diamonds,  and  particles  of  gold,  both  of  which  are  at 
or  near  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

In  India  the  diamond  mines  extend  through  a  long  tract  of 
country,  from  Bengal  to  Cape  Cormorin.  The  chief  of  these 
are  now  between  Golconda,  and  Masulipatam,  where  the 
diamonds  are  found  in  beds  of  ferruginous  sand  or  gravel. 
Fifty  years  ago  there  were  more  than  twenty  places  in  the 
kingdom  of  Golconda,  in  which  diamonds  of  different  sizes 
were  found,  and  fifty  places  were  also  wrought  in  the  king- 
dom of  Visapour.  Many  of  these  mines  are  now  abandoned, 
there  beino1  none  but  small  diamonds  found  in  them.  At 
present,  the  diamonds  of  Pastael,  twenty  miles  from  Golcon- 
da, at  the  foot  of  the  Gate  mountains,  are  most  in  request. — 
Phillips. 

The  following  list  contains  all  the  known  diamonds,  of 
remarkable  size,  existing. 

The  great  diamond  brought  from  India,  and  for  which  the 
India  company  asked  30,000/.,  was  by  far  the  largest  in 
Europe,  except  the  Pitt  diamond,  belonging  to  the  French 
crown.  Its  weight  is  89]  carats,  and  its  worth,  at  80/.  the 

Where  is  the  diamond  found  ? — What  are  the  modes  of  searching  for  the 
diamond  ? 


MINERALOGY. 


329 


carat,  would  be  637.000/.     The  following  figures  represent 
the  size  and  shape  of  this  diamond. 

Fig.  136. 

The  upper  figure  is  a  geometri- 
cal view  of  the  diamond,  from  its 
upper  face;  the  lower  figure  is  a 
perspective  view,  taken  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  dotted  lines  x,  y,  of 
the  upper  figure.  The  letters  A, 
B,  C,  set  against  the  angles  of  the 
figure,  and  a,  b,  c,  against  the  in- 
termediate sides,  respectively  refer 
the  same  parts  of  the  figure  to  each 
other.  D,  both  in  the  geometrical 
and  perspective  drawing,  marks 
the  upper,  or  flat  face ;  and  the  in- 
clined position  of  the  latter,  in  the 
perspective  view,  indicates  the  di- 
rection of  the  plane. — Shaw's  Na- 
ture Displayed. 

One  of  the  largest  diamonds,  hitherto  known,  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Rajah  of  Mattan,  in  the  island  of  Borneo,  where 
it  was  found  about  a  century  since.  It  is  shaped  like  an  egg, 
with  an  indented  hollow  near  the  smaller  end.  It  is  of  the 
finest  water,  and  weighs  367  carats,  or  2  oz.  169  grs.  Troy. 

For  this  diamond  the  governor  of  Batavia,  offered  the  Ra- 
jah one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  two  large  brigs  of 
war,  with  their  guns  and  ammunition,  and  a  certain  number  of 
great  guns,  and  a  quantity  of  ammunition  besides.  The  Ra- 
jah, however,  refused,  partly,  perhaps,  because  the  stone  was 
considered  to  possess  miraculous  powers,  the  water  in  which 
it  was  dipped  being  an  imaginary  remedy  for  all  diseases. 
The  fortune  of  his  family  was  also  supposed  to  be  connected 
with  this  stone. 

The  Glueen  of  Portugal  was  said  to  have  possessed  a  dia- 
mond weighing  eleven  ounces,  which,  according  to  the  rule 
of  estimating  its  value,  at  80/.  the  carat,  would  be  worth 
224,000,000/.  sterling.  This  stone  is  however  said  to  be  a 
white  topaz. — Bingley. 

The  Pitt  diamond  was  brought  from  India,  by  George  Pitt, 
Esq.  and  sold  by  him,  to  the  Regent  Duke  of  Orleans,  for 
about  100,OOOZ.  sterling.  It  is  the  same  which  was  set  in  the 
hilt  of  Napoleon's  state  sword. 

The  sceptre  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  is  adorned  with  a 
28* 


330 


INTRODUCTION  TO 


diamond  a  bout  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  It  had  once  been 
the  eye  of  an  eastern  idol,  and  is  said  to  have  been  stolen  by 
a  French  grenadier,  who  contrived  to  become  one  of  the 
priests  of  the  idol,  for  this  purpose.  Count  Orloff  bought  it 
for  Queen  Catharine,  for  90,OOOZ.  sterling,  and  an  annuity  ot 
4000/.  a  year,  during  the  life  of  the  person  who  sold  it. 

A  diamond  in  possession  of  the  Great  Mogul,  is  said  to 
weigh  about  280  carats,  and  is  valued  at  700,000/.  si  -.rling. 
This  diamond,  in  the  rough,  weighed  793  carats. 

The  King  of  Portugal  possesses  a  diamond  weighing  215 
carats. 

The  following  is  a  part  of  the  inventory  of  the  crown  jewels 
of  France,  according  to  the  estimate  of  a  commission  of  jew- 
ellers, appointed  by  the  National  Assembly,  in  1791. 

Weight     Estimated  at 
in  carats.          Dolls. 

1.  Le  Regent,  or  the  Pitt  diamond,     136  14-15     2,220,000 

2.  Le  Sancy,  a  translucent  diamond, 

cut  in  facets,  3311-16        185,000 

3.  A  rich  sky  blue  brilliant,  67    2-16        555,000 

4.  A  pear-shaped  diamond,  of  a  peach 

blossom  colour,  24  13-10  37,000 

5.  The  mirror  of  Portugal,  21     2-16  46,250 

6.  A  brilliant  diamond,  26  12-16  32,750 

7.  A  diamond,  cut  in  facets,  28     1-16  46,250 

8.  A  colourless  brilliant,  14  14-16  32,750 

9.  A  peach  blossom  brilliant,  1412-16  5,550 

10.  A  brownish  brilliant,  13  8-16  6,475 

11.  A  yellowish  brilliant,  11  2-16  1,850 

12.  A  wine  coloured  brilliant,  18  9-16  13,875 

13.  Fifteen    brilliants,  weighing  from 

5  to  10  carats  each,  154,105 

14.  1631  small  diamonds,  weighing  in 

all,  425  14,287 

15.  A  pale  blue  brilliant,  31  12-16          55,000 

16.  An    epaulet,    containing  9    larger 

and  197  smaller  brilliants,  8,695 

The  above  list  will  serve  to  show  the  immense  dispropor 
tion  there  is  between  the  value  of  small  and  large  diamonds, 
and  also  how  their  value  is  increased  or  diminished,  by  trans- 
parency, and  by  colour.  Thus,  number  8  is  more  than  seven 
times  as  valuable  as  number  9,  because  it  is  colourless. 

Rule  for  estimating  the  value  of  diamonds.  Diamonds  are 
Talued  by*  the  carat.  A  carat  is  4  grains.  The  estimate  ts 


MINERALOGY.  331 

made  by  squaring  the  number  of  carats,  and  multiplying  the 
result  by  the  price  of  a  single  carat.  Thus  the  price  increases 
in  a  much  greater  proportion  than  the  weight. 

The  price  of  a  small  rough  diamond,  fit  for  polishing,  is  2/. 
the  carat.  One  weighing  2  carats  is  worth  2-|-2  =  4X2/.= 
8Z.  One  of  4  carats,  4  X  4  «=  1 6  X  2  ^=  32/.  One  of  1 0  carats, 
1GX10=100X2=200/. 

The  value  of  small  diamonds,  cut  and  polished,  is  from  61. 
to  8/.  the  carat.  One  weighing  10  carats,  or  40  grains,  would 
therefore  be  worth  10X  10*=100x6=600|,  or  $2,666  64, 
at  61.  the  carat.  But  some  large  and  beautiful  diamonds  are 
valued  at  SQL  the  carat. 

The  first  attempt  to  polish  the  diamond  was  made  by  rub- 
bing two  against  each  other.  In  this  way,  after  years  of  in- 
cessant labour,  a  diamond  was  polished.  At  the  present  time, 
diamonds  are  cut  with  copper  wire,  coated  with  diamond  bort, 
or  dust,  and  polished  on  a  wheel  with  the  same. 

When  cut  and  polished,  diamonds  are  divided  by  jewellers 
into  brilliant,  rose,  and  table  diamonds,  depending  on  the  form 
and  number  of  their  artificial  faces. 

The  coloured  varieties  are  seldom  cut  and  polished  for 
iewelry,  but  are  powdered  for  polishing  the  transparent 
variety. 

When  a  diamond  is  perfectly  colourless,  and  transparent,  it 
is  said  to  be  of  the  first  water. 

Diamonds  are  set  without  a  back,  and  when  worn  as  head 
dresses,  &c.,  are  placed  on  black  velvet. 

Species  5.    MINERAL  CHARCOAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black,  or  grayish  black ; 
consists  of  charcoal,  with  various  proportions  of  earth  and 
iron,  but  without  bitumen;  lustre  glimmering;  structflr*? 
fibrous,  with  a  texture  like  \vood.  It  is  a  little  heavier  than 
common  charcoal. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe,  it  is  reduced 
to  ashes,  without  either  flame  or  smoke. 

It  occurs  in  thin  layers  in  several  formations  of  mineral 
coal.  Sometimes  the  two  kinds  are  found  attached  to  each 
other. 

Species  5.    CARBURET  OF  IRON.    BLACK  LEAD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  steel  gray,  passing  into  iron 
black;  occurs  in  amorphous  or  reniform  masses,  or  dissemi- 
nated in  other  minerals ;  also,  according  to  Phillips,  in  regu- 

What  is  the  method  of  ascertaining  the  value  of  diamonds  ? — How  are 
diamonds  polished  ?— What  is  the  proper  name  of  black  lead  1 


332  INTRODUCTION  TO 

lar  six-sided  crystals,  with  striated  summits ;  lustre  glittering, 
metallic;  fracture  uneven,  granular,  or  foliated;  unctuous  to 
the  touch ;  soils  the  fingers ;  writes  on  paper  or  wood ; 
opake ;  conducts  electricity :  sp.  gr.  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Before,  the  blow  pipe,  slowly  con- 
sumes, leaving  a  small  portion  of  oxide  of  iron  on  the  char- 
coal. With  borax,  it  dissolves  and  coats  the  outside  of  the 
globule,  metallic  black. 

Composition.  Carbon  96  ;  iron  4. — Saussure. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  sulphuret  of  molyb- 
dena,  but  is  commonly  less  brilliant.  The  two  minerals  are 
readily  distinguished  by  the  blow  pipe,  with  borax.  The 
graphite  slowly  dissolves,  or  separates  into  small  particles, 
which  incrust  the  surface  of  the  borax.  The  molybdena  ad- 
heres to  the  surface  in  distinct  brilliant  scales,  not  being  in 
the  least  altered  by  the  heat. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Cornwall,  Conn.,  in  considerable  quan- 
tities.— Brace.  Tolland,  Sharon,  and  Hebron,  Conn.  Two 
miles  from  Holland  meeting-house,  Mass.  Chester,  and 
Mount  Monadnock,  N.  H.  Sutton,  do.,  of  a  good  quality. — 
Cleveland.  Transylvania,  Buck's  county,  Va.,  in  considera- 
ble quantity. —  Conrad.  From  this  graphite,  good  pencils 
have  been  made  in  New- York. — Cleveland.  Near  Lake 
Champlain,  near  the  city  of  New -York,  and  near  Lake 
George,  N.  Y.  At  the  latter  locality,  it  is  sometimes  found 
in  masses  weighing  12  pounds,  and  is  very  compact. — Gibbs. 
Amity,  N.  Y.  Sturbridge,  Mass. 

Uses.  The  fine  kinds  of  graphite  are  sawn  into  thin  plates, 
one  edge  of  which  is  then  inserted  into  a  groove,  in  a  small 
semi-cylinder  of  cedar  wood,  which  is  then  sawn  off  in  a  line 
with  the  wood,  and  the  other  half  glued  on.  In  this  manner, 
the  common  black  lead  pencils  are  made.  Crayons  are  made 
by  melting  the  refuse,  or  sawings,  with  sulphur,  and  then 
casting  it  into  moulds.  These  are  easily  distinguished,  when 
rubbed,  or  heated,  by  their  sulphureous  smell. 

Graphite  is  also  used  to  form  crucibles,  which  are  much 
less  liable  to  fail  at  high  degrees  of  heat  than  those  made  of 
clay  and  sand. 

Species  6.    ANTHRACITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish  black ;  occurs  mas- 
sive, slaty,  and  columnar ;  lustre  metallic ;  often  presenting 
*  From  the  Greek  ;  consisting  of  carbon. 

What  is  the  composition  of  carburet  of  iron  ?— What  are  the  uses  oi 
black  lead  ?— What  is  anthracite  1 


MINERALOGV.  333 

,  or  tarnished,  splendid  metallic  colours,  consisting  of 
ted,  blue,  and  yello\v,  intermixed ;  easily  frangible  j  some- 
time soils  the  fingers;  opake:  sp.  gr.  1.40  to  1.60. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe  it  slowly  dis- 
app^ars  without  flame,  smoke,  or  smell.  When  burning  in  a 
wind  furnace,  the  small  quantity  of  water  which  it  contains  is 
decomposed,  and  the  hydrogen  gives  a  feeble  flame. 

Composition.  From  72  to  95  per  cent,  of  carbon ;  the  resi- 
due being  oxide  of  iron,  silex,  and  alumine. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  graphite,  but  its  frac- 
ture presents  a  more  shining  and  conchoidal  surface.  With 
borax,  it  floats  on  the  surface  without  change,  while  the  gra- 
phite slowly  dissolves  and  coats  the  surface.  It  is  heavier 
than  common  mineral  coal,  which  also  gives  out  a  bituminous 
odour  before  the  blow  pipe. 

Localities.  Near  Allemont,  in  France,  anthracite  forms 
layers  in  a  bed  of  black  slate,  at  an  elevation  of  about  7,500 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  England,  it  is  found  in  the 
coal  formations  of  Walsal,  in  Staffordshire.  In  Scotland,  at 
Gallon  Hill,  near  Edinburgh,  and  in  several  other  places. 
In  Wales,  there  are  several  formations  of  anthracite.  It  also 
occurs  in  Holland,  Norway,  Switzerland,  Savoy,  Spain,  &c. 

In  England,  it  is  called  stone  coal,  in  Scotland,  blind  coal, 
and  in  Ireland,  Kilkenny  coal. 

U.  S.  The  anthracite  formation  of  Pennsylvania  is  very 
extensive.  From  the  northeast  branch  of  the  Susquehannah, 
it  extends  eastward  about  30  miles,  and  westward  from  the 
same  river,  about  2  or  3  miles.  It  extends  down  the  Susque- 
hannah, to  about,  10  miles  below  Sunbury.  The  waters  of 
the  rivers  Fishing,  Lehigh,  Muncey,  and  Schuylkill,  pass 
through  this  formation.  On  the  Schuylkill,  it  extends  to 
about  20  miles  above  Reading.  At  Wilkesbarre,  the  anthra- 
cite appears  at  the  surface,  and  there  forms  a.  bed  from  20  to 
30  feet  thick.  Mines  are  worked  at  Wilkesbarre,  and  at  the 
heads  of  the  Lehigh  and  Schuylkill  rivers.  "At  Wilkes- 
barre, the  price  is  12^-  cents  the  bushel.  At  Philadelphia  it 
has  been  sold  at  50  or  60  cents  the  bushel ;  but  by  improve- 
ment in  the  navigation  of  the  rivers,  its  price  must  be  lowered 
to  25  or  30  cents." — Cooper. 

This  anthracite  is  of  a  jet  black  colour,  sometimes  inclining 
to  lead  grey ;  lustre  shining,  sometimes  splendent,  and  semi- 


What  is  the  composition  of  anthracite  ? — What  are  the  chisf  localities 
of  anthracite  in  this  country? 


834  INTRODUCTION  TO 

metallic ;  not  very  brittle ;  does  not  soil  the  hands :  sp.  gr. 
about  1.60. 

In  Portsmouth,  Rhode  Island,  reposes  a  bed  of  anthracite, 
which  has  been  worked,  more  or  less,  for  many  years.  Its 
colour  varies  from  lead  gray  to  grayish  black ;  structure 
slaty;  sometimes  breaks  into  small  rhomboidal  fragments,  the 
general  surface  of  the  fractured  faces  being  uneven,  or  hackly. 
It  soils  the  fingers,  and  is  easily  broken.  Its  specific  gravity, 
according  to  Dr.  Meade,  is  from  1.45  to  1.75;  and  its  com- 
position about  94  per  cent,  of  carbon,  without  any  contamina- 
tion from  sulphur.  The  remainder  appears  to  be  chiefly  iron 
and  silex. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Marcus  Bull,  of  Phi- 
ladelphia, the  comparative  value  of  the  Rhode  Island  and  Le- 
high  anthracites,  for  fuel,  is  as  71  to  99. 

Species  7.    MINERAL  OIL. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  species,  viz.,  naptha,  and 
petroleum. 

Variety  1.     NAPTHA. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish,  or  wine  yellow  ; 
sometimes  without  colour,  and  transparent ;  it  exhales  a 
strong  bituminous  odour,  and  burns  with  a  blue  flame,  and 
much  smoke,  leaving  no  residuum.  It  swims  on  water : 
sp.  gr.  from  0.71  to  0.85,  water  being  about  100. 

It  is  exceedingly  inflammable,  and  takes  fire  even  on  the 
approach  of  flame. 

Composition.  Carbon  87. 21;  hydrogen  12.79. — Saussure. 

When  distilled  and  made  perfectly  pure,  it  contains  neither 
water,  nor  oxygen,  in  any  other  form. 

Pliny  and  Galen  suppose,  that  this  was  the  substance  with 
which  Medea  destroyed  Creusa,  the  daughter  of  Creon.  She 
sent  that  unfortunate  princess  a  robe,"  besmeared  with  a  sub- 
stance which  burst  into  flames,  as  soon  as  she  approached  the 
altar  where  incense  was  burning,  and  thus  was  miserably  de- 
stroyed. 

Beckmann  has  related  several  instances  where  effects,  con- 
sidered magical,  were  produced  by  the  extreme  inflammability 
of  this  substance. 

Localities.  Copious  springs  of  naptha  occur  on  the  Cas- 
pian sea.  The  earth  in  that  vicinity  constantly  exhales  its 
vapour,  and  it  is  said  that  the  inhabitants,  by  concentrating 

How  is  mineral  oil  obtained  ? — What  is  said  of  the  inflammability  of 
mineral  oil  ? 


MINERALOGY.  335 

this  vapour,  and  passing  it  through  tubes,  have  perpetual 
lights,  and  that  they  cook  their  food  by  this  kind  of  fire.  It 
;s  collected  by  digging  wells  a  few  yards  deep.  It  is  also 
found  in  Sicily,  Dalmatia,  Hungary,  Siberia,  &c.  The 
ttreets  of  Genoa  are  said  to  be  lighted  with  it,  instead  of  oil. 
—Phillips. 

Variety  2.    PETROLEUM. 

External  characters.  This  is  a  black,  bituminous,  semi 
fluid,  with  a  strong  odour,  especially  when  heated.  It  is  very 
combustible,  and  bums  with  a  copious,  thick,  and  black 
smoke,  leaving  a  small  quantity  of  coaly  residue.  By  distil- 
lation, it  yields  a  colourless  fluid,  which  resembles  naptha  in 
many  of  its  properties,  and  probably  does  not  differ  materially 
from  that  substance. 

It  is  found  in  many  countries,  particularly  in  the  vicinity 
of  coal  formations. 

Localities.  France,  at  several  places.  England.  St.  Cath- 
arine's Well,  at  Edinburgh.  Bavaria.  Switzerland.  Near 
Parma,  in  Italy. 

But  it  is  most  plentifully  found  in  Asia.  In  the  Birman 
empire,  in  one  neighbourhood,  there  are  520  wells  in  full  ac- 
tivity, into  which  petroleum  flows  from  over  coal  formations. 
The  quantity  of  petroleum  annually  produced  by  them 
amounts  to  more  than  400,000  hogsheads.  In  that  section  of 
country  it  is  used  instead  of  oil  for  lamps.  Mixed  with  earth, 
or  ashes,  it  is  used  for  fuel. — Phillips. 

It  is  said  that  when  naptha  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it  becomes 
brown,  thickens,  and  passes  into  petroleum.  It  has  already 
been  observed,  that  petroleum,  when  distilled,  yields  a  fluid 
much  resembling  naptha.  It  is  most  probable,  therefore,  that 
naptha  becomes  petroleum,  after  the  loss  of  its  more  pure  and 
volatile  particles. 

U.  S.  Robertson  enumerates  11  localities  of  petroleum  in 
the  United  States.  Only  the  most  important  can  be  men- 
tioned. 

Five  miles  from  Scottsville,  in  Ken.  It  is  found  on  a 
spring  of  water,  and  sells  at  25  cents  the  gallon. — Jessv.p. 
Seneca  Lake,  N.  Y.  It  is  called  Seneca  oil,  and  is  collected 
in  considerable  quantities. — Cleveland.  Medina  county,  Ohio, 
and  in  several  other  places  in  that  state. 

Species  9.    MINERAL  COAL. 
External  characters.    Colour,  black,  or  brownish  black ; 

What  <s  petroleum? 


336  INTRODUCTION  TO 

occurs  massive,  and  slaty;  lustre  shining,  often  with  an  in 
discent  tarnish,  and  pseudo-metallic  lustre,  which  is  soim 
times  very  beautiful ;  fracture  large  conchoidal,'  or  uneven  , 
yields  to  the  knife,  but  not  to  the  nail ;  easily  broken  ;  opake . 
sp.  gr.  about  1.30. 

C/iemical  characters.  Most  varieties  of  coal  burn  easily, 
and  with  more  or  less  flame.  When  submitted  to  distillation, 
they  yield  carburetted  hydrogen,  a  bituminous  oil,  a  quantity 
of  mineral  tar,  and  a  portion  of  ammonia. 

Composition.  From  97  to  40  per  cent,  of  carbon ;  from  47 
to  9  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter,  and  from  3  to  13  per  cent,  of 
ashes. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  this  species,  depending  chief- 
ly on  colour  and  purity. 

Variety  1.    BLACK  COAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black,  often  with  an  iridis- 
cent  tarnish ;  occurs  massive ;  fracture  in  one,  and  some 
times  in  two  directions  slaty ;  fragments,  after  cleavage, 
rhombic,  or  cubic ;  cross  fracture,  imperfectly  conchoidal,  01 
uneven  ;  sometimes  contains  layers  of  mineral  carbon  :  sp. 
gr.  1.45. 

Chemical  characters.  Burns  with  a  bright  flame,  and 
much  smoke,  but  does  not  swell  and  agglutinate. 

Composition.  Carbon  75.28;  hydrogen  4.18 ;  azote  15.96; 
oxygen  4.58. —  Thomson. 

This  is  the  most  abundant  and  common  of  all  the  varieties 
of  coal,  and  is  the  principal  fuel  of  many  countries,  particu- 
larly of  England. 

Variety  2.    CANNEL*  COAL. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black;  texture  compact, 
fracture  large  conchoidal ;  lustre  glistening,  and  resinous ; 
hard,  and  brittle;  bears  a  fine  polish:  sp.  gr.  1.23  to  1.27. 

Composition.  Carbon  75.2;  bitumen  21.68;  ashes  3.12. — 
Kir  wan. 

It  decrepitates  when  first  heated,  and  burns  without  soften- 
ing, with  a  bright  flame,  and  rather  pleasant  odour. 

It  is  sometimes  worked  into  ink-stands,  snuff-boxes,  toys,  &c. 

Localities.  Wigan,  and  Whitehaven,  England.  Gilmer- 
ton,  and  other  places,  in  Scotland. 

*  Cannel  is  a  corruption  of  candle.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  give 
fight,  instead  of  candles. 

What  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  varieties  of  mineral  coal  7 


MINERALOGY.  337 

Coal  is  found  chiefly  among-  secondary  rocks,  where  it 
occurs  in  beds  of  various  extent  and  thickness. 

In  many  instances,  these  beds  lie  one  over  another,  with 
earth  interposed  between  them.  At  Whitehaven,  in  England, 
20  distinct  beds  have  been  explored,  lying  one  above  the 
other.  Near  Liege,  there  are  60  beds,  occurring  in  the  same 
manner. 

It  is  a  general  observation,  that  the  layers  of  slate,  which 
form  the  roofs  of  coal  beds,  bear  impressions  of  vegetables, 
and  particularly  of  ferns. 

Coal  is  sometimes  found  in  highly  elevated  situations.  Ac- 
cording to  Brongniart,  it  occurs  on  the  Cordilleras,  in  South 
America,  at  the  height  of  more  than  13,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

The  deepest  coal  mines  are  said  to  be  those  of  Namar,  one 
of  which  is  2,400  feet  deep.— Pinkerton. 

Coal  mines  are  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  probably 
in  consequence  of  the  decomposition  of  the  pyrites,  which 
some  coal  beds  contain  in  abundance.  Some  mines  are 
known  to  have  been  on  fire  for  years,  and  then  to  have  ceased 
burning. 

Heaps  of  coal,  when  large,and  exposed  to  a  small  quantity 
of  moisture,  are  subject  to  the  same  accident. 

The  coal  mine  at  Whitehaven,  England,  is  1200  feet  deep, 
and  extends  more  than  5000  feet  under  the  sea. 

The  United  States  contain  many  coal  formations,  which 
have  been  explored,  more  or  less  extensively. 

In  Virginia,  at  least  25  shafts  have  been  sunk  for  the  raising 
of  coal,  within  an  extent  of  70  miles.  At  Heth's  mine,  ac- 
cording to  Grammer,  the  bed  of  coal  is  50  feet  thick,  and  one 
of  the  shafts  is  350  feet  deep.  The  strata  which  cover  the 
coal  are  sandstone,  and  argillaceous  slate,  often  exhibiting 
vegetable  impressions.  Pure  charcoal,  says  the  same  writer, 
in  the  form  of  sticks  or  logs,  is  frequently  associated  with  the 
coal. 

In  Ohio,  coal  is  found  in  different  parts  of  the  state.  In 
some  cases,  three  successive  beds  are  found,  separated  from 
each  other,  by  argillaceous  slate,  bearing  vegetable  impres- 
sions. The  bed  nearest  the  surface,  according  to  Atwater, 
burns  well,  agglutinates,  and  leaves  only  a  small  residuum ; 
that  of  the  second  bed,  is  coarse,  burns  with  a  flame  less  bright, 
and  leaves  a  greater  residuum  ;  while  that  of  the  third  bed, 
though  much  more  abundant,  is  inferior  in  quality. 

What  is  the  origin  of  mineral  coal  ? 


338  INTRODUCTION  TO 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  country  watered  by  the  western  branch 
of  tne  Susquehannah,  is  chiefly  a  coal  formation.  Indeed, 
coal,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  is  supposed  to  .  underlay 
about  one-third  of  that  state.  At  Pittsburgh,  where  it  is  found 
on,  or  near  the  surface,  it  is  pretty  extensively  explored  as  an 
article  of  fuel. 

In  Connecticut,  a  coal  formation  commencing  at  New  Ha 
ven,  crosses  Connecticut  river  at  Middletown,  and  embracing 
a  width  of  several  miles  on  each  side  of  the  river,  extends  to 
some  distance  above  Northampton,  in  Massachusetts. — SiL 
liman. 

Within  the  above  described  tract  of  country,  coal  has  been 
found  at  Durham,  Middletown,  Chatham,  Hartford,  Farming- 
ton,  Windsor,  Enfield,  and  South  Hadley.  The  quantities 
found,  have  been  small,  and  have  occurred,  sometimes  in 
veins,  between  strata  of  clay  slate,  and  sometimes  in  detached 
pieces.  That  of  Windsor  is  a  vein  in  clay  slate,  and  is  about 
an  inch  thick  at  the  surface.  A  small  quantity  found  in  Farrn- 
ington,  is  very  full  of  bitumen,  and  burns  with  a  bright  blaze, 
and  black  smoke. 

Origin  of  coal.  All  naturalists,  says  Jameson,  are  now 
agreed,  that  the  greater  part  of  coal  is  derived  from  vegetables, 
which  have  been  altered  by  certain  natural  operations,  hitherto 
but  imperfectly  known. 

It  often  happens,  that  charcoal  is  found  with  perfect  mine- 
ral coal.  In  some  instances,  one  side  of  a  specimen  will  be 
mineral  coal,  and  the  other  side,  charcoal.  In  several  coal 
mines,  the  remains  of  trees,  either  petrified,  or  partly  pene- 
trated with  bituminous  matter,  have  been  discovered.  Indeed, 
most  of  the  phenomena  observed,  on  a  close  examination  of 
this  subject,  indicate  the  vegetable  origin  of  coal. 

Species  10.     LIGNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brown,  or  brownish  black  ; 
occurs  massive;  structure  woody;  burns  with  a  weak  flame, 
and  the  odour  of  peat.  The  compact  varieties  are  black, 
with  a  resinous  lustre,  and  imperfectly  conchoidal,  or  uneven 
fracture.  The  less  compact  kinds  are  brown,  and  without 
lustre. 

Chemical  characters.  It  burns  with  flame,  but  does  not 
swell  and  agglutinate  like  coal.  The  odour  is  not  bitumin- 
ous, but  like  that  of  decayed  vegetation,  and  similar  to  that  of 
peat. 

Composition.     Carbon   45;    water  30;   oily  bitumen  10 


MINERALOGY.  339 

gases  15.     There  is,  however,  much  difference  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  several  varieties. 

The  external  characters  of  lignite,  together  with  its  chemi- 
cal properties,  evince  that  it  is  of  vegetable  origin.  Indeed, 
the  branches  of  trees,  but  little  changed,  are  sometimes  found 
among  it. 

Variety  1.    FIBROUS  LIGNITE.    BITUMINOUS  WOOD. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brown,  or  clove  brown ;  tex- 
ture and  form,  that  of  wood  ;  longitudinal  fracture,  fibrous; 
cross  fracture,  uneven,  displaying  the  annual  circles  of  the 
tree;  opake  ;  brittle,  friable,  and  light. 

It  is  easier  -to  break  than  wood :  under  the  knife,  it  assumes 
a  kind  of  lustre. — Brongniart. 

Localities.  Bovey,  in  England.  Iceland.  Munden,  in 
Hanover.  Near  Paris.  Abundant  in  the  amber  mines  of 
Prussia. 

At  Bovcy,  Brongniart  says,  there  are  17  thick  beds  of  lig- 
nite, which  are  at  the  depth  of  about  66  feet. 

It  is  very  abundant  in  Iceland.  In  many  instances,  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  are  perfect,  being  merely  compressed  into 
an  oval  shape.  This  variety  passes  by  imperceptible  degrees 
into  those  which  are  more  distinctly  carbonaceous.  In  many 
instances,  the  several  varieties  are  found  together,  and  some- 
times the  same  specimen  will  show  the  brittle  and  fibrous 
varieties. 

The  coal,  says  Shaw,  in  the  centre  of  the  lowest  bed,  is  of 
a  black  colour,  nearly  as  heavy  as  pit  coal,  makes  a  strong 
and  durable  fire,  and  is  in  all  respects  a  perfect  mineral  coal. 
The  other  beds  are  more  of  a  chocolate  colour,  not  so  heavy, 
and  with  more  of  the  appearance  of  wood,  consisting  of 
pieces  which  lie  crossing  each  other  in  all  directions.  Some 
pieces  are  found,  which  have  the  knots  of  wood  in  them,  in 
one  part,  wrhile  another  portion  of  the  same  piece  is  converted 
into  perfect  mineral  coal.  So  that  nature,  in  this  instance,  is 
seen  in  the  very  act  of  forming  mineral  coal  from  vegetable 
matter. — Shaw's  Nature  Displayed,  Vol.  ii. 

Variety  2.    EARTHY  LIGNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black,  or  brownish  black ; 
occurs  massive ;  fracture  and  aspect,  earthy ;  texture  fine 
grained;  smooth  to  the  touch;  somewhat  friable;  when 
burned,  emits  a  disagreeable  odour.  It  is  nearly  as  light  as 
water. 

What  is  the  origin  of  lignite  ? 


340  INTRODUCTION  TO 

Localities.  Near  Cologne ;  Hessia ;  Bohemia,  Saxony, 
Iceland,  &c. 

It  forms  very  extensive  beds?  in  the  environs  of  Cologne, 
where  it  is  covered  with  a  bed  of  pebbles  of  quartz,  and  jas- 
per, and  embraces  trunks  of  trees,  of  a  black,  or  reddish  colour, 
and  compressed  into  nn  oval  shape. — Cleveland. 

This  lignite  is  used  as  fuel ;  also  for  painting  in  distemper, 
and  oil.  The  Dutch  use  it  to  adulterate  their  snuff*,  which  is 
said  to  give  it  a  much  esteemed  fineness  and  softness. 

Faujus  observes,  that  the  trunks  of  trees,  which  are  found 
in  beds  of  lignite,  are  always  deprived  of  their  branches, 
hence  he  concludes  that  they  have  been  conveyed  by  the 
ocean. 

The  same  author  relates,  that  nuts  which  now  belong  only 
to  Hindostan,  and  China,  together  with  a  kind  of  frankin- 
cense, are  found  in  the  bed  at  Cologne. — See  Pinkertoris  Pe- 
trology. 

Authors  agree  that  lignite  is  an  entirely  different  forma- 
tion from  that  of  coal,  and  that  it  is,  in  fact,  a  depos'ite  of  wood, 
which  has  been  covered  by  earth,  and  in  consequence  under- 
gone a  change  by  which  it  only  approximates  to  coal.  It  is, 
however,  most  probable,  that  in  time  it  will  be  completely 
mineralized  and  converted  into  coal. 

Species  11.    JET. 

External  characters.  Colour,  jet,  or  pitch  black  ;  occurs 
in  masses,  or  thin  layers;  texture  compact;  fracture  con- 
choidal,  and  undulated;  lustre  shining:  perfectly  opake; 
sometimes  the  texture  is  ligneous,  and  the  specimen  is  in  the 
form  of  the  branch  of  a  tree.  It  becomes  weakly  electric  by 
friction  :  sp.  gr.  1  25. 

Chemical  characters.  It  burns  with  a  greenish  flame,  and 
emits  a  strong  bituminous  smell. 

It  is  found  with  coal  of  the  newest  formation,  and  some- 
times with  lignite  and  amber. 

Localities.  Various  places  in  England  ;  Aude,  in  France. 
Various  places  in  Germany.  Silesia,  Hessia,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  Prussia. 

Brongniart  says,  that  jet,  proper  to  be  worked,  is  found  in 
masses,  the  weight  of  which  seldom  exceeds  50  pounds. 

Uses.  It  bears  a  fine  polish,  and  is  worked  into  trinkets, 
and  mourning  ornaments.  In  France,  in  the  Department  a1 
Aude,  1200  persons  are  employed  in  fabricating  the  jet,  which 

What  use  do  the  Dutch  make  of  lignite! 


MINERALOGV.  341 

is  found  there,  into  rosaries,  buttons,  ear-rings,  snuff-boxes, 
bracelets,  &c.— -  Journal  des  Mines. 

Species  13.     AMBER. 

External  characters.  Colours,  wine  yellow,  greenish,  or 
yellowish  white,  or  reddish  brown;  occurs  in  nodules,  or 
roundish  masses,  of  various  sizes,  from  grains,  to  that  of  a 
man's  head;  texture  compact;  transparent,  or  translucent; 
fracture  perfectly  conchoidal;  lustre  resinous;  becomes 
strongly  electric  by  friction  ;  bears  a  high  polish. 

Chemical  characters.  It  burns  silently,  and  with  little 
smoke.  While  burning,  it  emits  a  bituminous  odour,  which 
is  not  unpleasant.  Soluble  in  oils,  when  gently  heated. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  resembles  copal,  but  this,  while 
burning,  crackles,  and  emits  an  aromatic  resinous  odour ; 
while  amber  burns  silently,  and  emits  an  odour  distinctly 
bituminous. 

Localities.  Greenland,  Moravia,  Poland,  France,  Prus- 
sia. 

It  is  found  among  sand  and  gravel,  accompanied  with  lig- 
nite, bitumin,  and  jet. 

In  Prussia,  a  mine  of  amber  is  explored  to  the  depth  of 
more  than  100  feet.  Under  a  stratum  of  sand  and  clay  20 
feet  thick,  there  succeeds  a  stratum  of  trees  40  or  50  feet  thick. 
The  wood  is  partly  decomposed,  and  impregnated  with  pyrites 
and  bitumen,  and  is  of  a  blackish  brown  colour.  Under  the 
stratum  of  trees,  and  sometimes  attached  to  them,  the  amber 
is  found ;  it  is  most  probable,  therefore,  that  it  has  proceeded 
from  the  vegetable  juices. — Phillips. 

The  amber  pits  of  Prussia  are  said  to  afford  the  king  a 
revenue  of'$26,000  annually. — Parkes. 

U.  S.  At  Cape  Sable,  in  Ann-Arundel  County,  Md.  It 
occurs  in  a  bed  of  lignite,  and  is  found  in  grains,  or  masses, 
sometimes  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter. — Troost.  Cleveland. 
Near  Trenton,  N.  J.  and  Camden,  opposite  to  Philadelphia. 
At  the  latter  place,  a  transparent  specimen  was  found,  several 
inches  in  diameter. —  Woodbridge  That  found  near  Trenton, 
occurs  in  small  grains,  and  rests  on  lignite,  or  carbonated 
wood,  or  even  penetrates  it.  Cape  Sable,  Md. 

Uses.  It  is  cut  into  articles  of  ornament  and  dress,  as 
ear-rings,  bracelets,  beads,  amulets,  &c.  It  bears  a  high 
polish,  and  was  anciently  considered  the  most  precious  of 
jewels.  The  greatest  quantity  at  present  is  purchased  by 
the  Armenian  and  Grecian  merchants. — Jameson. 

ft  often  contains  insects  of  various  species,  in  a  state  of 
29* 


342  INTRODUCTION  TO  MINERALOGY. 

complete  preservation.     These  are  sometimes  introduced  by 
art,  in  order  to  increase  the  value  of  the  specimen. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  gum  copal  is  often  sold  for  amber,  a? 
when  cut  and  polished,  the  pale  varieties  of  amber  cannot 
easily  be  distinguished  from  copal.  By  attending  attentively 
to  the  distinctive  characters  above  pointed  out,  the  tw<?  sub 
stances  may  readily  be  distinguished. 


APPENDIX. 


CONTAINING  THE    DESCRIPTION    OF  MINERALS    NOT    EMBRACED    IN   THE  BODY 
OP   THE    WORK. 


CHLOROPH^EITE.* 

External  characters.  Colour,  when  newly  broken,  pista- 
chio green,  passing-  into  muddy  green ;  transparent ;  turns 
dark,  after  a  few  hours'  exposure  to  the  air,  and  finally  be- 
comes quite  black;  occurs  in  small  nodules;  fracture  con- 
choidal,  \vhen  transparent,  and  earthy  when  it  becomes  dark  ; 
soft,  scratched  by  a  quill ;  brittle :  sp.  gr.  2. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe,  it  remains  un- 
changed. With  muriatic  acid,  it  indicates  the  presence  of 
iron. 

Composition.   Silex,  with  proportions  of  iron,  and  alumine. 

Localities.  The  Isle  of  Rum,  and  Fifeshire,  in  Scotland. 
Also  in  Iceland. 

U.  S.   Gill,  Mass.    Southbury,  Conn.    Turner's  Falls,  Vt. 

ARFWEDSONITE. 

•External  characters.  Colour,  black,  without  any  shade  of 
green  ;  occurs  in  crystalline  shapes,  and  in  ablique  rhombic 
prisms :  cleavage,  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  prism,  at  the 
angle  of  123°  55';  planes  of  cleavage,  brilliant;  not  so  hard 
as  hornblende:  sp.  gr.  3.44. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  ease  into  a  black  glo* 
bule ;  with  borax,  gives  a  glass  coloured  by  iron ;  with  salt 
of  phosphorus,  a  globule  which  becomes  colourless  on  cool- 
ing, leaving  a  skeleton  of  silex  on  the  charcoal. 

Distinctive  characters.  It  differs  from  hornblende,  in  being 
of  a  pure  black,  instead  of  greenish;  and  also  in  the  quantity 
of  its  angles :  on  these  accounts  it  has  been  separated  from 
hornblende,  of  which  it  is  considered  a  variety. 

*  The  name  is  from  the  Greek,  and  alludes  to  the  green  colour  of  this 
mineral  when  newly  broken. 


344  APPENDIX. 

Localities.  Greenland,  where  it  is  associated  with  sodalite, 
and  hornblende. 

U.  S.  A  mineral  which  occurs  at  Plymouth,  Vt.,  agrees 
very  nearly  with  the  above  description. 

BABINGTONITE. 

External,  characters.  Colour,  black,  often  greenish ;  oc- 
curs in  short  eight-sided  prismatic  crystals;  cleavage  distinct 
in  two  directions;  fracture  imperfect  conchoidal;  translucent, 
or  opake  in  larger  crystals ;  hardness  equal  to  that  of  felspar. 

Composition.  Silex,  iron,  manganese,  and  lime,  with  a 
trace  of  titanium. 

Localities.  Arendal,  Norway,  in  small  crystals,  disposed 
on  those  of  Albite. 

U.  S.    Governeur,  N.  Y.,  coating  crystals  of  felspar. 

BERGMANITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  several  tints  of  gray,  passing 
into  white  on  the  one  hand,  and  brick  red  on  the  other ;  oc- 
curs massive;  fracture  uneven;  texture  fine  grained;  lustre 
pearly;  appears  like  a  mixture  of  several  earthy  substances; 
scratches  glass,  and  even  quartz  :  sp.  gr.  2.3. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  white,  and  melts,  without 
effervescence,  into  a  colourless  glass. 

Locality.  Near  Stavern,  in  Norway,  with  felspar  and 
quartz. 

tt  is  considered  a  variety  of  Wernerite. 

BRUCITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  wine  or  amber  yellow,  or 
yellowish  brown  ;  occurs  in  grains  and  crystalline  masses ; 
also  in  four-sided  prisms,  with  rhombic  bases ;  lustre  a  little 
pearly;  structure  not  apparent,  or  indistinctly  foliated  in  one 
direction  ;  crystals  generally  imperfect,  sometimes  terminated 
with  dihedral  summits ;  fracture  uneven ;  hardness  equal  to 
that  of  felspar  ;  translucent:  sp.  g.  2.3. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone,  but  becomes  white ; 
with  borax,  fuses  slowly  into  a  transparent  globule  tinged 
with  iron. 

Composition.  (From  Pargas.)  Magnesia  54;  silex  38; 
oxide  of  iron  5.1;  alumine  1.5;  potash  0.86;  manganese  a 
trace. — Z)'  Ohsson. 

(From  Sparta.)  Magnesia  54.000 ;  silex  32.666;  fluoric 
acid  4.086;  potash  2.108;  peroxide  of  iron  2.333;  water 
1.000. — Seybert. 


APPENDIX,  349 

Localities.    Sundermanland,  Sweden.  Pargas,  in  Finland. 
U.  S.  Sussex,  N.  J.,  very  abundant.    Orange  county,  N.YM 
at  Amity  and  Edenville. 

BREWSTERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white  inclining  to  gray,  or 
yellow;  occurs  in  small  prismatic  crystals,  generally  termina- 
ted by  two  planes ;  cleavage  perfect  in  one  direction ;  lustre 
vitreous,  or  pearly;  yields  to  the  knife:  sp.  gr.  2.12  to  2.20. 

Chemical  characters.  Loses  its  water  of  crystallization ; 
becomes  opake  and  frothy,  but  does  not  melt. 

Composition.  Silica  58.800;  alumine  18.912;  lime 
12.384;  potash  1.500;  water  11.700=  103.296.— Thomson. 

Locality.  Strontian,  Scotland,  where  it  occurs  lining  the 
cavities  of  a  granite  rock. 

This  was  formerly  considered  a  variety  of  Apophylite. 

BROOKITE. 

External  cnaracters.  Colour,  hair  brown,  passing  into 
deep  orange  yellow;  streak  yellowish  white;  occurs  in  short 
prismatic  crystals ;  lustre  adamantine ;  brittle ;  yields  to  the 
knife. 

Composition.  It  contains  titanium,  but  so  far  as  we  know, 
has  not  been  analyzed.  Fine  crystals  are  found  at  Snowdon, 
in  Wales. 

BUCKLANDITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  dark  brown,  approaching 
black;  occurs  in  six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  two  principal 
faces;  cleavage  not  observable;  opake;  scratches  glass;  re- 
sembles augite. 

Locality.  Near  Arendal,  in  Norway,  where  it  occurs 
with  calcareous  spar,  and  hornblende. 

COMPTONITE. 

External  characters.  Colour  white;  occurs  in  small  six- 
sided  crystals  ;  transparent,  or  translucent ;  primary  form,  the 
right  rectangular  prism;  cleavage  in  two  directions;  fracture 
small  conchoidal ;  uneven;  lustre  vitreous;  yields  to  the 
knife. 

Chemical  characters.  Before  the  blow  pipe,  it  first  gives 
off  water,  intumesces  a.  little,  and  becomes  opake,  then  melts 
into  a  vesicular  glass.  The  globule  obtained  with  borax  is 
transparent,  but  vesicular ;  that  with  salt  of  phosphorus,  con- 
tains a  skeleton  of  silica,  and  becomes  opake  by  cooling. 
With  a  little  soda  it  melts  imperfectly,  but  with  a  larger  quan- 
tity it  becomes  infusible. 


346  APPENDIX. 

This  mineral  appears  to  belong  to  the  zeolite  family. 
Locality.     It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  at  Mount  Ve- 
suvius, lining  the  cavities  of  an  amygdaloidal  rock. 

FTJCITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  grayish,  or  greenish  black ; 
occurs  in  four,  or  six-sided  prisms,  which  yield  to  mechanical 
division,  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism,  of 
about  87  and  93  degrees;  opake ;  soft:  sp.  gr.  2.5  to  3. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  becomes  shining  like 
enamel. 

Mr.  Phillips  thinks  that  fucile  may  prove  to  be  a  variety 
of  augite. 

Locality.  Near  Arendal,  in  Norway,  in  rolled  masses  of 
granular  quartz. 

DEWEYLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  yellowish,  and  green- 
ish white;  occurs  massive;  composition  impalpable;  lustre 
vitreous,  inclining  to  resinous ;  easily  frangible  if  immersed 
in  water;  surface  rough,  and  sometimes  drusy,  exhibiting 
small  mammillary  concretions:  fracture  imperfectly  conchoi- 
dal  :  sp.  gr.  2.2  to  2.3. 

Chemical  characters.  Decrepitates,  but  melts  in  small 
fragments  into  a  white  enamel,  without  ebullition.  With  bo- 
rax forms  a  colourless  glass. 

Composition.  Silex  40  ;  magnesia  40  ;  water  20. — Shep- 
ard. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Middlefield,  Mass.  Cooptown,  Hartford 
County,  Md.  Amity,  N.  Y. 

It  is  possible  that  this  may  prove  a  variety  of  keralite. 

FORESTERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  colourless ;  occurs 
in  small  prismatic  crystals,  with  obtuse  terminations,  resem- 
bling those  of  strontian  ;  transparent,  or  translucent;  lustre 
brilliant;  cleaves  in  one  direction;  angles  agree  nearly  with 
those  of  prismatic  corundum  ;  scratches  quartz. 

Composition.  According  to  Children,  it  is  composed  of 
silex  and  magnesia. 

Locality.    Mount  Vesuvius,  associated  with  augite. 

HOPEITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grayish  white;  streak 
white ;  occurs  in  prismatic  crystals,  with  pyramidal  termina- 
tions ;  lustre,  vitreous  or  pearly;  transparent,  or  translucent; 


APPENDIX.  347 

cleavage  perfect  in  one  direction,  and  less  so  in  others;  one 
of  the  prismatic  faces  deeply  striated  ;  the  others  smooth ; 
very  soft;  sectile:  sp.  gr.  2.75. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  borax  into  a  trans- 
parent glass.  Alone,  it  gives  off  water  before  the  blow  pipe, 
and  then  melts  into  a  transparent  globule,  which  tinges  the 
flame  green.  With  salt  of  phosphorus  it  gives  no  skeleton 
of  si  lex,  but  melts  with  it  in  all  proportions.  With  solution 
of  cobalt,  it  forms  a  fine  blue  glass. 

Composition.  Hopeite,  therefore,  seems  to  be  a  compound 
of  some  of  the  stronger  acids,  as  phosphoric,  or  boracic  acid ; 
of  zinc,  an  earthy  base,  a  little  cadmium,  and  a  great  deal  of 
water. — Mohs. 

HUMITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  various  shades  of  yellow, 
or  yellowish  white,  passing  into  brown ;  occurs  in  prismatic 
crystals,  the  primary  form  being  the  right  rhombic  prism  ; 
crystals  modified  in  their  secondary  forms  by  a  great  number 
of  transverse,  or  oblique  planes;  fracture  imperfectly  con- 
choidal ;  lustre  vitreous ;  translucent,  or  transparent ;  brittle; 
harder  than  felspar. 

Chemical  characters.  Alone,  it  is  infusible,  but  becomes 
opake  on  the  outside ;  with  borax  it  gives  a  clear  glass. 

Locality.  Mount  Somma,  with  mica,  and  various  other 
minerals. 

IODIC    SILVER. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  or  silver  white, 
changes  to  lavender  blue  on  exposure;  occurs  in  masses,  and 
thin  plates;  lustre  resinous;  streak  semi-metallic;  translu- 
cent ;  soft,  and  flexible. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  on  charcoal,  producing  a 
smoke  which  tinges  the  flame  of  a  beautiful  violet  colour, 
which  indicates  the  presence  of  iodine.  Globules  of  silver 
remain  on  the  charcoal. 

Locality.  Near  Mazapil,  in  Mexico,  in  thin  veins  in 
steatite. 

IRIDOSMINE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  between  silver  white,  and 
lead  gray ;  occurs  in  regular  six-sided  prisms  of  a  metallic 
lustre;  malleable  with  difficulty:  sp.  gr.  17.96  to  18.57. 

Chemical  characters.  Undergoes  no  change  before  the 
blow  pipe.  With  nitre,  affords  the  odour  of  osmium,  the  re- 


343  APPENDIX. 

«ult  being  soluble  in  water,  to  which  when  nitric  acid  is  added 
a  green  precipitate  appears. 

'Composition.  Osmium  24.5  ;  iridium  72.9 ;  iron  2.6. — 
Thomson. 

Locality.  It  is  found  with  native  platina  in  the  Ural 
mountains,  and  in  South  America. 

JOHANNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  grass,  or  siskin  green  ; 
occurs  in  the  form  of  a  right  rhombic  prism  ;  cleavage  in  one 
direction;  lustre  vitreous;  taste  bitter:  sp.  gr.  3.2. 

Chemical  characters.     Dissolves  in  water. 

Composition.  It  is  a  double  sulphate  of  uranium  and 
copper. 

KEROLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  leek,  or  siskin  green, 
passing  into  blackish  green  ;  occurs  in  crystals,  of  which  the 
primary  form  is  a  doubly  oblique  prism  ;  also  massive,  com- 
posed of  lamellar,  or  columnar  pieces ;  column  white,  passing 
into  gray  or  greenish :  sp.  gr.  2.2  to  2.6. 

Chemical  characters.  When  heated  suddenly  decrepi- 
tates violently,  the  fragments  becoming  white  and  hard.  In 
small  fragments  the  edges  become  glazed  by  the  heat;  with 
borax  affords  a  colourless,  or  greenish  glass. 

Composition.  (From  Silesia.)  Magnesia  18.01 ;  silex37.95; 
alumine  12.18;  water  31.00. — Pfaf. 

(From  Hoboken.)  Magnesia  46.0;  silica  36.0;  lime  2.0; 
water  15.0;  protoxide  of  iron,  with  traces  of  chrome  0.5.-— 
Nuttall. 

Localities.  Kerolite  was  originally  found  in  Silesia,  and 
from  similarity  of  composition  it  appears,  that  the  Marmolite 
of  Nuttall,  found  at  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  must  be  referred  to  the 
same  species. 

LEADHILLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish  white,  passing  into 
tints  of  gray,  yellow,  and  brown  ;  lustre  inclining  to  adaman- 
tine ;  streak  white  ;  occurs  in  crystals,  of  which  the  primitive 
form  is  a  rhomboid ;  also  massive,  with  a  lamellar,  or  granu- 
lar composition  ;  sectile :  sp.  gr.  6.26  ;  transparent,  translu- 
cent. 

Chemical  characters.  Intumesces  before  the  blow  pipe,  and 
becomes  yellowish,  but  becomes  white  again  on  cooling;  dis- 
solves with  effervescence  in  nitric  acid,  and  leaves  a  white 
jos  id  num. 


APPENDIX.  349 

Composition.  Carbonate  of  lead  71.1;  sulphate  of  lead 
30.0. — Berzelius. 

Locality.  Lead  hills,  Scotland,  in  a  vein,  in  gray  wacke 
with  other  ores.  Also  in  Spain,  where  it  occurs  w'ith  other 
metals. 

LEVYNfl. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white ;  streak  unchanged ; 
occurs  in  rhomboidal  crystals,  of  which  the  alternate  angles 
measure  136°  1',  and  117°  24';  cleavage  indistinct;  fracture 
imperfectly  conchoidal;  lustre  vitreous ;  brittle;  soft;  trans- 
lucent :  sp.  gr.  2.19. 

Chemical  characters.  With  salt  of  phosphorus,  it  yields  a 
transparent  skeleton  of  silex,  which  becomes  opake  on  cool- 
ing;  heated  in  a  glass  tube,  it  gives  off  water,  and  becomes 
opake. 

Composition.  Silica  48.00;  alumina  20.00;  lime  8.35; 
magnesia  0.40;  potash  0.41 ;  water  19.30. — Berzelius. 

Localities.  Faroe,  Ireland,  and  in  the  Island  of  Skye,  in 
amygdaloid. 

LIBF.THENITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  olive  green,  generally  dark ; 
streak  greenish;  translucent  on  the  edges;  occurs  in  short 
six-sided  prisms;  lustre  resinous:  sp.  gr.  3.6. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into,  a  brownish  globule, 
which,  by  continuing  the  beat,  extends  on  the  surface  of  the 
charcoal,  and  becomes  reddish  gray  with  a  metallic  lustre, 
and  contains  a  little  metallic  globule  of  copper. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  copper  63.9;  phosphoric  acid  28.7; 
water  7.4. — Berthier. 

Localities.  Hungary,  with  yellow  copper  pyrites ;  also  at 
the  Gunnis  mine,  in  Cornwall,  England. 

LIGURITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  apple  green,  sometimes 
speckled  externally;  occurs  in  oblique  rhombic  prisms  of 
140°,  and  40°,  occasionally  modified  by  truncation;  fracture 
uneven;  lustre  vitreous;  powder,  and  streak,  grayish  white; 
translucent,  or  transparent ;  not  electric  by  heat,  or  friction; 
does  not  phosphoresce  on  live  coals ;  hardness  about  that  of 
quartz:  sp.  gr.  3.49. 

Composition.  Silex  57.45;  alumine  7.36;  lime  25.30; 
magnesia  2.56;  oxide  of  iron  3.00;  oxide  of  manganese 
OX'  Viviani 

SO 


350  APPENDIX. 

According  to  Leon  hard,  this  is  a  gem,  with  respect  to 
hardness,  transparency,  and  colour. 

Localities.  On  the  banks  of  the  Stura,  in  the  Apennines, 
in  a  talcose  state. 

LINCOLNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  transparent,  or  trans 
lucent ;  occurs  in  right  oblique  angled  prisms,  with  the  acute 
lateral  edges  truncated. 

Chemical  characters.  Whitens  with  a  gentle  heat,  and 
melts  before  the  blow  pipe  into  a  spongy  white  enamel. 

Localities.  U.  S.  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in  amygdaloidal  trap  ; 
also  at  Bellows  Falls,  Vt. 

MARGARITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  pearl-gray,  passing  into 
reddish  and  yellowish  white;  occurs  in  small  crystalline 
laminaB,  intersecting  each  other  in  various  directions :  cleav- 
age perfect  in  one  direction  ;  lustre  pearly  on  one  of  the  faces, 
and  vitreous  on  the  others  ;  brittle  :  soft:  sp.  gr.  about  3.  It 
also  occurs  massive,  with  a  granular  texture. 

Composition.  Silex  37.00;  alumine  40.50  ;  oxide  of  iron 
4.50;  lime  8.96;  soda  1.24 ;  water  1.00.— Du  Menil. 

Localities.  Margarite  is  found  at  Sterzing,  in  the  Tyrol, 
in  foliated  chlorite. 

MELACONITE 

External  character's.  Colour,  dark;  occurs  massive,  with 
a  compact  texture;  also  earthy  and  pulverulent. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  black  scoria,  and 
yielding  a  globule  of  metallic  copper.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric 
acid. 

Composition.  Copper  79. 83;  oxygen  20. 17. — Beudant. 

Localities.  Melaconite  is  probably  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  various  ores  of  copper,  as  it  is  found  in  most,  if  not 
all,  copper  mines,  as  those  of  Chessy,  near  Lyons,  and  those 
of  Cornwall,  the  Hartz,  &c. 

MELLILITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellow,  honey  or  orange ; 
occurs  in  small  square  prisms,  with  the  lateral  edges  trunca- 
ted;  also  in  small  nodular  masses;  translucent  or  opake; 
gives  sparks  with  steel ;  crystals  usually  coated  with  brown 
oxide  of  iron:  sp.  gr.  1.59. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  without  ebullition,  into  a 
greenish  glass;  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  with  which  it  forms  a  jelly. 

Composition.     Silex  38 ;  lime  19 ;  magnesia  19.40 ;  alu- 


APPENDIX.  351 

mine  2.90;  oxide  of  iron   12.10;  oxide  of  titanium  4;  oxide 
of  manganese  2. — Carpi. 

Locality.  Capo  di  Bove,  near  Rome,  in  the  fissure  of 
compact  black  lava. 

MELLITE. 

Another  mineral  called  mellite,  or  honey  stone,  is  trans- 
parent, or  translucent;  occurs  in  the  form  of  octohedrons  with 
truncated  summits,  with  a  resinous  lustre. 

Composition  Alumina  16.00;  mellitic  acid  46.00 ;  water 
33.00.—  Klaproth. 

Locality.     This  is  found  only  at  Artern,  in  Thuringia. 

MICROLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  straw  yellow,  passing  into 
reddish  brown;  occurs  in  crystals,  of  which  the  primitive  is 
the  regular  octohedron,  the  secondaries  being  variously  trun- 
cated on  the  edges  and  solid  angles;  translucent;  transparent 
on  the  edges ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  primary  faces :  sp.  err. 
4.75  to  5.00. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone  ;  slowly  dissolves  in 
glass  of  borax,  giving  it  a  yellowish  hue,  which  becomes 
paler  on  cooling.  Insoluble  in  acids. 

Composition.  It  appears  to  be  an  oxide  of  cerium  ;  pro- 
portion unknown. 

Locality.  U.  S.  Chesterfield,  Mass,  in  the  vein  of  albite, 
with  green  and  red  tourmaline.  Crystals  very  small. 

OMPHACITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  green,  of  various  shades, 
often  deep  grass  green ;  occurs  massive,  composed  of  small 
crystalline  filaments;  translucent;  transparent  on  the  edges; 
cleavage  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  rhombic  prism. 

Chemical  characters.     Fusible  with  difficulty. 

Locality.  New  HofF,  in  the  Tyrol,  with  actynolite,  gar- 
nets, and  mica. 

PECTOJLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  sometimes  yellow,  or 
gray;  lustre  vitreous,  or  pearly ;  occurs  in  spheroidal  masses, 
composition  columnar:  sp.  gr.  2.69. 

Chemical  character.  Fusible  into  a  white  transparent 
glass  ;  after  calcination  forms  a  jelly  with  muriatic  acid. 

Composition.     Silica  51. 30;  lime  33.77;  soda  8.26;  pot- 


352  APPENDIX. 

ash   1.57;  water  8.89;  alumine  and  oxide  of  iron  0.90.— *• 
Kobell. 

Locality.     Monte  Boldo,  in  South  Tyrol. 

PICnOLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  leek  green,  passing  into 
yellow;  occurs  massive;  structure  compact,  or  fibrous;  frac- 
ture splintery  ;  lustre  glimmering,  and  a  little  pearly;  trar»3- 
lucent  on  the  edges ;  brittle  ;  varies  from  soft  to  hard :  sp. 
gr.  2.60. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  borax,  which  it  colours 
green,  the  colour  fading1  as  it  cools. 

Composition.  Silex  40.04;  magnesia  38.80;  peroxide  of 
iron  8.28;  carbonic  acid  4.70;  water  9.08. — Almroth. 

Localities.  Faberg,  and  Nordmarken,  in  Sweden,  in  beds 
of  octohedral  iron. 

U.  S.  West  Haven,  and  Milford,  Conn.,  in  masses,  in  verd 
antique.  Weatherfield,  Vt,  in  veins  through  a  serpentine 
rock.  Kelly  Vale,  Vt.,  of  an  oil  green  colour. 

PICROSMINE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  greenish  white,  greenish 
gray,  oil  green,  leek,  and  blackish  green  ;  occurs  massive ; 
structure  fibrous,  passing  into  compact ;  cleavage  perfect  .in 
one  direction,  and  less  so  in  others  ;  fracture  uneven,  or  earthy  ; 
lustre  pearly  on  one  of  the  faces,  and  vitreous  on  the  other; 
streak  white  ;  opake,  or  translucent  on  the  edges ;  soft ;  very 
sectile  :  sp.  gr.  2.59  to  2.66. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  emits  water,  and  be- 
comes first  black,  then  white  and  opake,  and  acquires  consid- 
erable hardness ;  soluble  in  phosphoric  salt,  except  a  skeleton 
of  silex.  When  heated  with  a  solution  of  cobalt,  it  assumes  a 
pale  red  colour. 

Locality.     Near  Presnitz,  in  Bohemia,  in  an  iron  ore. 

Haidenger  supposes  that  several  varieties  of  asbestos  should 
be  referred  to  this  species. 

PINGUITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  several  shades  of  green  ; 
streak  pale;  fracture  conchoidal;  occurs  massive,  resembling 
green  iron  ore;  lustre  resinous;  translucent  on  the  edg^s; 
emits  an  argillaceous  odour  when  moistened. 

Composition.  Silica  36.90;  peroxide  of  iron  29.50;  alu- 
mina 1.80;  protoxide  of  iron  6. 10;  magnesia  0.45;  oxide  of 
manganese  0. 1 4 ;  water  25. 1 0. — Karsten. 


APPENDIX.  353 

Localities.  In  a.  mine  in  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  and  at  Geils- 
dorf,  in  Plauen. 

POLYMtGNITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  black;  occurs  in  crystals 
in  the  form  of  a  right  rhombic  prism,  variously  truncated,  and 
terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids ;  cleavage  perfect  in  the 
direction  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  primitive  form;  fracture 
conchoidal;  lustre  nietallic  ;  opake :  sp.  gr.  4.8. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  and  unaltered  alone,  with 
borax  melts  into  a  dark  coloured  glass;  with  salt  of  phos- 
phorus dissolves  slowly  before  the  blow  pipe ;  with  soda,  it 
becomes  grayish  red,  but  does  not  melt. 

Composition.  Titanic  acid  46,30;  zirconia  14.14;  oxide 
of  iron  12.20;  lime  4.20:  oxide  of  manganese  2.70;  oxide 
of  cerium  5.00  ;  yttria  11.50. — -Berzelius. 

Localities.  Norway,  with  zirconia.  Small  crystals  nearly 
answering  the  above  description  are  found  at  Beverly,  Mass., 
composition  unknown. 

PYRORTHITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  brownish  black,  streak  the 
same;  in  decay  turns  yellowish;  occurs  massive;  fracture 
conchoidal,  splintery,  or  earthy;  opake:  sp.  gr.  2.19. 

Chemical  characters.  Burns,  if  gently  heated,  without 
either  flame  or  smoke,  then  turns  white,  and  melts  into  a 
black  enamel ;  gives  a  transparent  glass  with  borax. 

Composition.  Silex  10.43;  protoxide  of  cerium  13.92; 
alumina  5.59  ;  protoxide  of  iron  6.08  ;  yttria  4.87  :  lime  1.81 ; 
protoxide  of  manganese  1.39;  water  26.50;  carbon  31.41. — 
Berzelius. 

Locality.  Pyrorthite  is  found  near  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  in 
granite,  with  gadonolite. 

SILICIOUS  HYDRATE  OF  ALUMlNfi. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  with  a  tinge  of  yel- 
ow  or  blue;  occurs  massive;  when  dry,  the  lustre  is  resin- 
ous, and  it  absorbs  about  one-eighth  of  its  weight  of  water: 
adheres  to  the  tongue  ;  fracture  earthy  ;  on  exposure  becomes 
friable,  and  loses  about  40  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 

Chemical  characters.     Infusible  ;   forms  a  jelly  with  acids. 

Composition.  Alumine  44.5;  silex  15;  water  40.5.— 
Berthier. 

Locality.  In  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Oo. 
in  a  lead  mine. 

30* 


354  APPENDIX. 

This  species  has  several  varieties,  all  of  which  are  composed 
of  the  same  materials,  but  differing"  in  proportions.  Their 
colours  are  also  similar,  being  different  degrees  or  shades  of 
white. 

Variety  1.     SEVERITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white;  occurs  massive; 
fracture  earthy ;  texture  fine  grained ;  translucent ;  resembles 
lithomarge,  but  is  a  little  harder ;  lustre  none ;  yields  to  the 
knife;  brittle;  polishes  by  friction;  adheres  to  the  tongue; 
has  no  argillaceous  odour  when  moistened  ;  does  not  form  a 
paste  with  water. 

Chemical  characters.  It  does  not  effervesce  with  acids,  nor 
is  its  colour  changed  by  heat ;  when  newly  fractured,  diffuses 
an  odour  like  that  of  apples. 

Composition.  Silex  50 ;  alumine  22  ;  water  26. — Pelletior. 

Localities.  Near  St.  Severn,  in  France,  in  small  masses,  in 
a  gravelly  soil. 

Variety 2.   LENZINITE. 

This  has  been  divided  into  two  sub-varieties,  viz.,  Opaline, 
and  Argillaceous. 

Sub-Variety  \.    OPALINE  LENZINITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  milk  white ;  occurs  in  small 
masses;  fracture  flat  conchoidal ;  surface  dull;  texture 
earthy;  translucent;  yields  to  the  knife;  easily  reduced  to  a 
white  powder;  adheres  to  the  tongue :  sp.  gr.  2.10. 

Chemical  characters.  When  heated  in  a  crucible,  loses  25 
per  cent,  of  its  weight,  and  becomes  so  hard  as  to  scratch 
glass ;  when  thrown  into  water,  falls  in  pieces. 

Sub-Variety 2.    ARGILLACEOUS  LENZINITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  snow  white,  sometimes 
tinged  yellow  by  oxide  of  iron;  occurs  in  small  pieces;  frac- 
ture earthy;  lustre  small;  becomes  polished  by  rubbing; 
translucent  on  the  edges;  unctuous  to  the  touch  ;  brittle;  ad- 
heres to  the  tongue;  breaks  to  pieces  in  water:  sp.  gr.  1.80. 

Chemical  characters.  Exposed  to  red  heat,  it  becomes  hard 
enough  to  scratch  glass,  but  undergoes  no  other  change. 

Composition.  Silex  39;  alumine  35.5  ;  water  25.0;  lime 
0.05. — Johns. 

Localities.  Both  varieties  are  found  near  Call,  in  Eifeld. 

Variety  3.    KOLLYRITE. 

External  characters.  Colour  white ;  occurs  compact;  ap- 
pears like  clay,  and  from  which  water  -nay  be  obtained  by 
pressure ;  retains  its  water  so  strongly,  that  it  requires  a 


APPENDIX.  355 

month  or  more  for  a  small  piece  to  become  dry  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  when  it  separates  into  columnar  pieces,  like 
starch ;  absorbs  water  with  a  hissing  noise,  and  becomes 
translucent. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible ;  soluble  in  nitric  acid, 
without  effervescence. 

Composition.  Alumine  45  ;  silex  14 ;  water  40. — Klaproth. 

Localities.  Thuringia,  and  Schemnitz,  in  Hungary. 

Variety  4.    ALLOPHANE. 

External  characters.  Colourless,  and  semi-transparent;  or 
sometimes  blue,  green,  or  brown;  occurs  massive;  but  shows 
signs  of  crystalline  forms;  lustre  somewhat  vitreous;  brittle: 
sp.  gr.  1.85. 

Chemical  characters.  Intumesces,  and  falls  into  powder, 
but  alone  is  infusible.  With  borax  melts  into  a  coloudless 
glass. 

Composition.  Alumine  32.20  ;  silex  29.92;  water  4 1.30; 
carbonate  of  copper  3.05 ;  also  a  little  lime,  sulphate  of  lime, 
and  hydrate  of  iron. — Stromeyer. 

Localities.     Thuringia,  in  a  bed  of  limestone. 

SPHjERULITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  gray  and  brown,  of  various 
shades,  occurs  in  spheroidal  or  botryoidal  masses,  and  in 
fibrous  concretions ;  fracture  splintery ;  structure  fibrous,  or 
compact ;  opake,  or  translucent ;  lustre  none ;  brittle ;  scratches 
quartz  slightly:  sp.  gr.  2.50. 

Chemical  characters.  Nearly  infusible,  the  sharp  edges 
only  becoming  glazed. 

Composition.     In  composition  is  nearly  allied  to  obsidian. 

Locality.  Near  Schemnitz,  in  Hungary,  imbedded  in 
pitchstone. 

SORDAWALLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  greenish,  or  grayish  black ; 
occurs  massive;  fracture  conchoidal ;  texture  compact;  no 
trace  of  cleavage ;  lustre  vitreous,  and  a  little  metallic ;  brit- 
tle;  hardness  equal  to  that  of  glass:  sp.  gr.  2.53. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  difficulty,  into  a  black- 
ish globule.  With  borax  yields  a  green  glass ;  with  a  small 
quantity  of  soda  yields  a  blackish  green  globule,  and  with  a 
larger  quantity,  a  rough  slaggy  mass.  Becomes  reddish  on 
exposure. 

Composition.      Silex   49.40;  alumine    13.80;  peroxide  of 


356  APPENDIX. 

iron    18.17;  magnesia   10.67;  phosphoric  acid  2.67;  water 
4.38. — Nordenskiold. 

Localities.  Sordawala,  in  the  government  of  Wiborg,  in 
Finland,  in  thin  layers  in  a  primitive  rock. 

STROMEYERITE. 

External  characters,  Colour,  blackish  lead  gray;  streak 
shining;  occurs  massive;  composition  impalpable;  fracture 
conchoidal :  sp.  gr.  6.225. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  readily,  with  the  odour  of 
sulphureous  acid,  into  a  grayish  globule  of  a  metallic  lustre. 
Soluble  in  nitric  acid,  the  solution  affording  indications  of  metal- 
lic copper,  by  the  immersion  of  an  iron  plate,  and  of  silver 
on  a  copper  one. 

Composition,  Sulphur  15.96 ;  silver  52.87  ;  copper  30.83 ; 
iron  0.34. — Stromeyer. 

Locality.     It  is  found  in  small  masses  in  Siberia. 

THULITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  rose  red;  occurs  in  crys- 
talline masses ;  cleavage  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  a 
rhombic  prism  of  87°  30',  and  92°  30' ;  not  so  hard  as  quartz, 
yields  to  the  knife  with  difficulty. 

No  analysis  of  this  mineral  has  been  made.  It  occurs  at 
Tellenmarken,  in  Norway,  with  quartz,  fluor  and  idocrase. 

TORRELITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  vermilion  red,  powder  rose 
red ;  occurs  disseminated,  and  in  small  fragments ;  fracture 
granular ;  in  some  specimens  fine,  and  in  others  coarse 
grained  ;  slightly  magnetic  ;  scratches  glass. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible  alone ;  with  borax  forms 
a  glass  of  a  green  colour,  while  hot,  but  becomes  colourless 
when  cold. 

Composition.  Silex  32.60 ;  peroxide  of  iron  cerium  12.32 ; 
protoxide  of  iron  21.00;  alumine  3.68;  lime  24.08;  water 
3.50;  loss  2.82. — Renwick. 

Locality.  Andover  iron  mine,  Sussex  County,  N.  J. 
where  it  is  intimately  connected  with,  and  disseminated  through 
the  ore. 

This  mineral  was  first  analyzed  by  Prof.  Renwick,  who 
makes  the  following  observations  on  it. 

"  This  ore  appears,  at  first  glance,  to  be  composed  of  three 
very  distinct  substances.  The  first  is  intermediate  in  appear- 
ance between  the  granular  Franklinite,  and  the  large  grained 


APPENDIX.  357 

magnetic  ore,  of  Gov.  Dickerson's  mine,  at  Succasinny ;  on 
a  cursory  examination,  it  seems  to  be  a  protoxide  "f  iron, 
with  a  slight  trace  of  zinc.  The  second  is  an  amorphous 
quartz,  tinged  with  a  colour,  varying  from  a  pale  rose  colour, 
to  a  deep  vermilion.  The  third  is  of  a  dull  vermilion  red, 
and  of  a  granular  fracture;  in  some  specimens,  fine,  in  others 
coarse  grained.  This  last  was  chosen  as  the  subject  of  ex- 
amination." 

Prof.  Renwick  named  this  mineral  Torrelite,  in  honour 
of  Prof.  Torrey,  of  New  York. 

TRIPLITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  blackish  brown ;  occurs 
massive;  cleavage  in  three  directions,  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  one  of  them  more  distinct  than  the  others;  fracture 
small  conchoidal ;  lustre  resinous;  translucent  on  the  edges, 
or  opake:  sp.  gr.  4.439. 

Chemical  characters.  Melts  easily  into  a  black  scoria; 
dissolves  in  nitric  acid  without  effervescence. 

Composition.  Oxide  of  iron  31.00;  oxide  of  manganese 
42.00;  phosphoric  acid  27.00. —  Vauquelin. 

Localities.  Near  Limoges,  in  France,  in  a  vein  of  quartz, 
with  opatite. 

V.  S.  Washington,  Conn.,  in  considerable  quantity  in 
quartz.  Sterling,  Mass.,  with  spodumene. 

TROOSTITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  pale  asparagus  green,  also 
yellowish,  grayish,  and  reddish  brown ;  occurs  in  crystals,  of 
which  the  primitive  form  is  the  rhomboid,  the  secondary  forms 
being  changed  by  the  truncation  of  the  terminal  angles;  lus- 
tre vitreous ;  transparent,  or  translucent :  sp.  gr.  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Becomes  transparent  by  heat,  and 
melts  on  the  edges;  with  borax  dissolves,  giving-  it  a  violet 
tinge;  dissolves  in  muriatic  acid,  giving  the  smell  of  chlorine. 

Composition.  Silica  30.650;  protoxide  of  manganese 
46.215;  protoxide  of  iron  15.450";  loss  by  heat  7.300. — 
Thomson. 

Localities.  Sterling,  N.  Y.,  with  Franklin ite.  • 

VERMICULITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  yellowish,  or  greenish 
white,  and  dark  brown  interspersed,  giving  the  mass  a  brown- 
ish cast ;  occurs  massive  ;  texture  compact,  interspersed  with 
laminae,  or  scales  resembling  mica;  lustre  glistening,  or 


358  APPENDIX. 

dull;  powder  yellowish,  mixed  with  shining-  scales;  emits 
an  argillaceous  odour  when  moistened. 

Chemical  characters.  It  swells  under  the  blow  pipe,  and 
shoots  out  excrescences,  having  a  vermicular  motion,  and  re- 
sembling worms. 

Locality.    U.  S.    Worcester,  Mass. 

This  appears  to  be  a  new  variety  of  talc  discovered  by 
Mr.  Webster,  of  Mass.  The  name  chosen  by  the  discoverer 
has  been  inserted  in  conformity  to  the  rule  that  discoverers 
of  new  objects  in  natural  science  have  a  right  to  name  them. 
The  property,  however,  on  which  the  name  is  founded  is  by 
no  means  peculiar  to  the  mineral  in  question.  The  skolezite 
ofFuchswas  named  from  the  same  property;  and  at  least 
one  variety  of  zeolite  behaves  in  the  same  manner  before  the 
blow  pipe. 

VIVIANITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  varies  from  dark  green  to 
indigo  blue;  green  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  and  blue 
parallel  to  the  axis;  occurs  in  crystals,  of  which  the  primi- 
tive form  is  a  right  oblique-angled  prism,  variously  changed 
by  truncation,  the  most  common  secondary  being  a  twelve- 
sided  prism,  terminated  by  six-sided  summits ;  also  in  small 
reniform  and  globular  masses,  which  are  easily  reduced  to 
powder;  lustre  pearly,  on  some  faces  of  the  crystals  nearly 
metallic:  translucent,  transparent:  sp.  gr.  2.66. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  into  a  dark  scoria,  which  is 
magnetic;  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Composition.  Protoxide  of  iron  42.65  ;  phosphoric  acid 
24.00;  water  25.00. —  Thomson. 

Localities.  Transylvania,  with  native  gold ;  also  at  Corn- 
wall, England,  and  Bavaria,  in  the  Shetlands,  &c. 

U.  S.  Allentown,  Monmouth  county,  N.  J.,  imbedded  in 
bog  iron  ore,  sometimes  filling  shells  as  Belemnites,  and 
Gryphites. 

WAGNERITE. 

External  characters.  Colours,  several  shades  of  yellow, 
sometimes  inclining  to  orange  yellow,  and  sometimes  inclining 
to  gray;  occurs  in  crystals;  form  unknown;  lustre  vitreous; 
translucent;  scratches  glass:  sp.  gr.  3.11. 

Composition.  Phosphoric  acid  41.72;  chloric  acid  6.50; 
magnesia  46.66;  oxide  of  iron  5.00;  oxide  of  manganese 
0.50.— Fucks. 

Localities.  Near  Werfer,  Saltzburgh,  where  it  occurs 
with  quartz,  in  clayslate.  This  is  the  only  locality  known. 


APPENDIX.  359 

WITHAMITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  carmine  red,  and  pale  straw 
yellow,  in  two  different  directions,  perpendicular  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  lengthened  prisms;  occurs  in  minute  prismatic 
crystals,  aggregated  into  globular  masses,  radiating  from  their 
centres  ;  lustre  vitreous  ;  translucent ;  brittle  ;  scratches  glass  : 
sp.  gr.  3.13. 

Chemical  characters.  Swells,  but  fuses  with  difficulty  into 
a  dark  greenish  gray  globule  ;  salt  of  phosphorus  dissolves  it 
with  effervescence  into  a  globule,  which  contains  a  skeleton 
of  silver. 

Locality.  Glencoe,  in  Scotland,  in  a  trap  rock. 

YENITE. 

(External  characters.  Colour,  iron  black,  passing  into  dark 
gray;  occurs  in  quadrangular  prisms,  with  the  summits  and 
edges  variously  changed  by  truncation  and  bevelment;  cleav- 
age parallel  with  the  longer  diagonal  of  the  prism;  fracture 
uneven  ;  also  massive  :  sp.  gr.  4. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible ;  becomes  magnetic  by  heat  ; 
colours  borax  yellowish  green;  soluble  in  muriatic  acid. 

Composition.  Silica  29.278 ;  protoxide  of  iron  52.542 ; 
lime  13.777  ;  protoxide  of  manganese  1.587;  alumina  0.614; 
water  1.258. — Stromeyer. 

Localities.  Occurs  in  primitive  rocks  in  Silicia,  Norway, 
and  especially  at  Elba. 

U.  S.  Cumberland,  R.  I.,  in  slender  crystals  in  quartz. 

ZEAGONITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  white,  grayish,  and  pale 
smalt  blue  ;  occurs  in  semi-globular  masses ;  also  crystallized 
in  the  form  of  the  octohedron,  with  a  square  base;  angles 
sometimes  truncated;  lustre  adamantine;  cleavage  imperfect" 
in  two  directions;  brittle;  fracture  conchoidal ;  translucent; 
crystals  small ;  hardness  equal  to  that  of  quartz. 

Chemical  characters.  Infusible,  but  phosphoresces,  and  be- 
comes friable. 

Composition.  Silex41.4;  lime  48. 6;  magnesia  1.5;  oxide 
of  iron  2.5. — Carpi. 

Mohs  has  little  doubt,  from  the  quantity  of  the  angles  of 
zeagonite,  that  it  is  a  variety  of  zircon.  Its  composition,  how- 
ever, is  entirely  different,  that  of  zircon  being  70  parts  of  zir- 
conia,  while  the  present  species  contains  not  a  trace  of  that 
earth. 

Localities.  Capo  de  Boae,  near  Rome,  in  the  cavities  of  a 
volcanic  rock. 


360  APPENDIX. 

ZURTITE. 

External  characters.  Colour,  asparagus  green;  occurs  in 
four-sided  rectangular  prisms,  sometimes  flattened,  and  occa- 
sionally truncated;  cleavage  indistinct;  also  occurs  in  botry- 
oidal  masses ;  fracture  conchoidal,  passing  into  uneven  ;  tex- 
ture compact,  and  corneous :  surface  rough,  and  covered  with 
white  coating;  yields  to  quartz,  but  gives  sparks  with  steel: 
sp.  gr.  3.27. 

Chemical  characters.  Fusible  with  borax  into  a  blackish 
glass.  Nitrous  acid  dissolves  it  in  part,  with  effervescence. 
and  assumes  a  yellow  colour. 

Localities.  Mount  Vesuvius,  with  calcareous  spar,  where 
n  was  first  discovered  by  Remondini,  and  described  by  him 
in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Naples, 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c. 

COMMONLY  USED  IN  MINERALOGICAL  DESCRIPTIONS,. 


Acuminated.    Having  the  point  drawn  out. 

Acicular.  Long,  slender,  and  straight  prisms,  or  crystals,  are  termed  acicular, 
from  the  Latin,  acicnla,  a  little  needle. 

Aggregated.  A  mineral  rock  is  said  to  be  aggregated,  when  the  several  compo- 
nent parts  only  adhere  together,  and  may  6e  separated  by  mechanical  means  : 
the  felspar,  quartz,  and  mica,  constituting  granite,  may  be  separated  mechan- 
ically. Granite  is  an  aggregated  rock. 

Alloy.    A  natural  combination  of  two  or  more  metals  in  the  metallic  state. 

Amalgam.    A  natural  combination  of  two  metals,  of  which  mercury  is  one. 

Amorphous.  Without  form;  of  undefinable shape  ;  from  the  Greek,  (amorphous,) 
having  that  signification.  Amorphous  minerals  are  sometimes  described  as 
being  of  indeterminate,  or  indefinite  forms. 

Anhydrous.  From  the  Greek,  (anudros,)  signifying  without  water;  anhydrous 
gypsum  is  without  water. 

Arborescent     From  the  Latin,  arboresco,  to  grow  like  a  tree  ;  see  Dentritic. 

Arseniate.  A  term  applied  to  a  mineral  consisting  of  the  arsenic  acid  united  with 
a  base,  as  of  copper  in  the  arseniate  of  copper. 

Base.  A  term  denoting  the  substance  to  which  an  acid  is  united ;  in  the  arseniate 
of  copper,  the  copper  is  the  base. 

Borate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  boracic  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as  of  mag- 
nesia, in  the  borate  of  magnesia. 

Botryoidal.  From  the  Greek,  (botruodes,)  signifying  hung  with  clusters  of  grapes 
or  berries.  So  a  mineral  presenting  an  aggregation  of  large  sections  of  nu- 
merous small  globes,  is  termed  botryoidal ;  but  when  the  globes  are  larger,  and 
the  portions  are  less,  and  separate,  the  appearance  is  expressed  by  the  term 
mammillated.  These  forms  may  be  observed  in  certain  ores  of  cobalt,  copper, 
and  manganese,  and  often  in  chalcedony. 

Bladed.  This  term  relates  chiefly  to  the  structure  of  such  minerals  as,  on  being 
broken,  present  long  flat  portions  longitudinally  aggregated,  and  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  blade  of  a  knife ;  this  appearance  may  in  general  be  considered 
as  the  effect  of  interrupted  crystallization. 

Brittle.  This  character  of  mineral  bodies  does  not  depend  upon  their  hardness  ; 
those  of  which  the  particles  cohere  in  the  highest  degree,  and  are  lininoveable 
one  among  another,  are  the  most  brittle.  The  diamond,  quartz,  sulphate  of 
barytes  and  sulphur,  vary  greatly  as  to  hardness  ;  they  are  all  brittle,  the  first 
only  in  particular  directions. 

Canalfcnlated ;  presenting  deep  channels  on  the  surface,  resulting  either  from 
interrupted  crystallization,  or  the  aggregation  of  numerous  crystals. 

Capillary^  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  capillus,  a  hair,  and  is  chiefly  used  to  express 
the  lonir,  tortuous,  hair-like  appearances,  to  be  observed  in  native  gold.  a.-«l 
silver,  and  some  other  minerals.  Crystals  are  sometimes  termed  capillary, 
when  long  and  slender;  but  when  straight,  they  are  more  properly  designated 
o>  tho  term  acicular. 

Carbonate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  carbonic  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as  of 
lime,  in  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

Cavernous.  A  mineral  in  which  there  are  considerable  hollows  or  cavities,  Is  said 
to  be  cavernous. 

fltllular.    This  term  was  used  by  Werner,  in  the  description  of  such  minerals  as 

31 


362  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c. 

exhibit  cells  formed  by  the  crossing  and  intersecting  of  the  laminae  or  lamella 
of  which  they  are  constituted  :  commonly,  any  mineral  presenting  numerous 
small  cells  or  cavities,  is  termed  cellular:  see  vesicular. 

Chatoyant,  has  been  adopted  from  the  French,  who  use  it  to  express  the  change- 
able  light  resembling  that  to  be  observed  in  the  eye  of  a  cat,  to  be  seen  in  cer- 
tain minerals  ;  as  in  the  cat's-eye. 

Chromate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  chromic  acid  is  united  with  a  base,  as  of  lead, 
in  the  chroinate  of  lead. 

Cleavage.  This  term  is  most  commonly  used  in  relation  to  the  fracture  of  those 
minerals  which,  having  natural  joints,  possess  a  regular  structure,  and  may  be 
cleaved  into  more  or  less  geometrical  fragments ;  as  into  varieties  of  the  paral- 
lelepiped, the  rhomboid,  &c. 

Coherent.  In  minerals  that  are  brittle,  the  particles  are  strongly  coherent ;  in  such 
as  are  friable,  they  are  slightly  coherent. 

Combustion.  During  the  burning  of  a  combustible,  in  common  cases,  oxysren 
unites  with  it,  or  with  some  of  its  ingredients;  and  the  product  of  the  combus- 
tion is  either  an  oxide,  an  acid,  or  an  alkali. 

Compact.  A  mineral  is  compact  when  no  particular  or  distinct  parts  are  discerni- 
ble ;  a  compact  mineral  cannot  be  cleaved  or  divided  into  regular  or  parallel 
portions.  The  term  compact  is  too  often  confounded  with  the  lerm  massive. 

Concentric  lamellar.  This  may  be  said  to  relate  to  structure,  being  used  in  the  de- 
scription of  such  minerals,  as,  being  of  a  spherical  form,  or  of  any  portion  of 
a  sphere,  have  received  successive  coatings  of  depositions.  If  an  onion  be  cut 
in  two,  it  exhibits  the  concentric  lamellar  in  perfection. 

Conchoidal,  relates  only  to  fracture  ;  and  is  doubtless  derived  from  the  Latin,  con- 
choides,  signifying  like  the  shell  of  a  fish.  Fragments  of  many  of  the  brittle 
minerals  exhibit  this  appearance,  and  occasionally  in  great  pertection,  as  quart?, 
and  sulphur  :  the  fracture  of  compact  minerals  is  frequently  more  or  less  per 
fectly  conchoidal. 

Concretion,  generally  signifies  a  small  and  distinct  mass. 

Coralloidal,  resembling  branches  of  coral. 

Cuneiform,  wedge-shaped  ;  cuneus,  in  Latin,  signifies  a  wedgV 

Cuneiform  octohedron.    See  octohcdron. 

Decomposed.  This  term,  when  used  strictly  in  amineralogical  sense,  imports  the 
consequence  of  the  chemical  action  which  takes  place  naturally  in  some  min- 
erals. Certain  ores  of  iron,  &c.  in  which  sulphur  predominates  in  an  unusual 
degree,  decompose  by  exposure  to  air. 

Decrepitate.  A  mineral  is  said  to  decrepitate  on  exposure  to  heat,  when  it  flies 
with  a  crackling  noise  similar  to  that  made  by  salt  when  thrown  into  the 
fire. 

Dentritic  ;  derived  from  the  Greek,  (dentritis,)  signifying  like  the  growth  of  a  tree. 
The  terms  arborescent  and  dentrilic  are  used  synonymously:  ihoy  are  alike 
applied  to  the  tree-like  appearance  in  which  native  silver  and  native  copper  are 
sometimes  found;  to  the  delineations  seen  on  the  surfaces  of  certain  minerals  ; 
and  to  the  appearance  in  the  mocha-stone,  &c. 

Dentiform,  or  dentated ;  in  the  shape  of  teeth  ;  dens  being  the  Latin  for  a  tooth. 

Disseminated.  When  a  mineral,  whether  crystallized,  or  otherwise,  is  found  here, 
and  there  imbedded  in  a  mass  of  another  substance,  it  is  said  to  be  dissemina- 
ted in  the  mass.  Crystals  of  quartz  sometimes  occur,  disseminated  in  Carrara 
marble,  &c. 

Disintegrated.  This  term  is  generally  used  to  express  the  falling  to  pieces  of  any 
mineral,  without  any  perceptible  chemical  action. 

Diverging,  or  divergent.  When  the  structure  is  fibrous,  and  the  fibres  ;«re  not 
parallel,  they  usually  diverge  in  part,  but  not  wholly,  around  a  common  c»  mre  , 
as  in  certain  zeolites,  and  hffimatitic  iron  ores.  The  crystals  of  some  sub- 
stances assume  a  diverging  position. 

Drufy.  has  been  adopted  from  the  German  term  drusen,  for  which  we  have  nr 
English  word.  The  surface  of  a  mineral  is  said  to  be  drusy  when  composed  ol 
very  small  prominent  crystals  nearly  equal  to  each  other;  it  is  often  seen  \v 
iron  pyrites. 

Efflorescence.  An  efflorescence  is  the  consequence  of  chemical  action  ;  it  is  usu- 
ally applied  to  such  minerals  as  are  found  in  extremely  minute  fibres  on  olc 
walls,  &c.  &c. 

Elastic.  A  mineral  which,  after  being  bent,  springs  bnck  to  Its  original  fr.rm.  is 
clastic.  Mica  is  elastic  ;  talc,  which  greatly  resembles  mica,  is  only  llr.xible, 
not  elastic. 

Earthy  This  term  relates  to  fracture,  and  to  texture.  Chalk,  and  certain  of  tho 
ore*  of  iron  and  lead,  art?  notable  instances  of  the  earthy  fracture  or  texture. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c.  363 

Fasciculated.  When  a  number  of  jninute  fibres  or  acicular  crystals  occur  in 
small  aggregations  or  bundles,  they  are  said  to  be  fasciculated:  a  term  doubt- 
less derived  from  tlie  Latin,  fasciculus,  a  little  bundle.  This  appearance  often 
occurs  in  green  carbonate,  and  arseniate  of  copper. 

Fibrous.  This  term  relates  both  to  form  and  structure.  Certain  minerals,  as  am- 
ianthus, amiarithifonu  arseniate  of  copper,  a  variety  of  gypsum,  &c  ,  occur  in 
distinct  fibres.  Asbestos,  gypsum,  red  haematitic  iron  are.  &c.  are  found  mas- 
sive, and  of  a  parallel  fibrous  structure  ;  some  varieties  of  red  haematite,  and 
other  minerals,  are  of  a  radiating  fibrous  structure,  when  the  fibres  diverge 
from  a  common  centre. 

Filament.  A  mineral  is  said  to  occur  in  filaments,  when  it  is  found  in  slender, 
thread-like,  or  hair-like  portions.  It  is  therefore  nearly  synonymous  with  the 
term  capillary. 

Fi-Uiforin,  is  used  in  the  same  sense  as  the  preceding;  but  Werner  confines  its 
use  to  express  the  appearance  of  certain  metals  which  occur  in  the  form  of 
wire,  as  native  silver  and  native  copper.  Filum,  in  Latin,  signifies  thread ;  lilinn 
nietalli,  wire. 

Flexible.  Talc  is  flexible  ;  it  readily  bends,  but  does  not  return  to  its  original  form. 
Mica  is  both  flexible  and  elastic. 

Fluale.  This  term  designates  a  mineral  in  which  the  fluoric  acid  is  combined  with 
a  base,  as  with  lime,  in  the  fluate  of  lime. 

Fuliu.tnd.  This  term,  which  doubtless  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  foliatus,  having, 
or  consisting  of.  leaves,  is  used  by  Werner  to  express  the  structure  of  all  min- 
erals that  may  be  divided  or  cleaved  regularly,  and  are  therefore  by  him  said 
to  consist  of  folia  or  leaves.  The  structure  of  such  minerals  is  more  common- 
ly and  better  expressed  by  the  term  lamellar ;  and  they  are  said  to  consist  of 
lamina:. 

Fracture,  is  a  term  now  chiefly  employed  in  designating  the  appearance  of  miner- 
als which  have  no  regular  structure,  when  they  are  broken;  such  minerals 
present  an  earthy,  even,  uneven,  or  a  conchoidal  fracture,  &c. 

Frangible.  The  term  frangibiliiy  has  relation  to  the  susceptibility  of  minerals  to 
separate  into  fragments  by  force  :  this  quality  in  minerals  is  not  dependent  on 
their  hardness;  the  structure  of  some,  and  the  brittleness  of  others,  renders 
them  easily  frangible;  while  others,  which  from  their  softness,  and  the  ease 
with  which  their  particles  or  molecules  yield,  or  slide  over  one  another,  are 
with  much  more  difficulty  frangible;  such  minerals  possess  the  character  of 
toughness.  Quartz  is  easily  broken  ;  asbestos  is  tough. 

Fria/i/e.  A  mineral  whose  portions  or  particles  slightly  cohere,  and  which  is 
therefore  easily  crumbled  or  broken  down,  is  said  to  be  friable,  or  in  a  friable 
state. 

Fungiform.  Certain  substances,  as  for  instance  calcareous  stalactites,  are  occa- 
sionally met  with,  having  a  termination  similar  to  the  head  of  a  fungus  ;  whence 
they  are  said  to  be  fungifoim. 

Gangue,  Gangart.  We  have  these  terms  from  the  Germans;  the  gangue  of  a 
mineral,  is  the  substance,  in,  or  upon  which,  a  mineral  is  found:  it  is  sometimes 
termed  the  matrix.  Silver,  occurring  in.  or  upon  carbonate  of  lime,  is  said  to 
have  carbonate  of  lime  for  its  gangue  or  matrix. 

Geode.  This  also  we  derive  from  the  Germans.  A  geode  is  a  hollow  ball ;  at  Ober- 
stein,  in  riaxony,  are  found  hollow  balls  of  agate  lined  with  crystals  of  quartz  or 
amethyst,  which  are  termed  geodes. 

Glance,  is  also  a  German  word,  meaning  shining  ;  thus,  the  followers  of  that  school 
use  the  terms  glance-coal,  copper-glance,  «kc. 

Globular  distinct  concretion,  is  used  to  designate  the  form  of  any  mineral  which 
occurs  in  little  round  or  roundish  masses;  the  pea-stone,  and  roe-stone  are  ex- 
amples of  it. 

Granite.    A  mineral  composed  of  quart?:,  mica,  and  felspar. 

Granular.  The  structure  of  a  mineral  is  said  to  be  granular,  when  it  appears  to 
consist  of  small  grains  or  concretions,  which  sometimes  can,  sometimes  cannot, 
be  discerned  without  the  help  of  a  glass  ;  we  have  therefore  the  fine  granular, 
and  the  coarse  granular  structure. 

Greasy,  is  used  in  relation  to  lustre  ;  fat  quartz  has  a  greasy  lustre. 


Hackly.  This  term  relates  to  a  fracture  which  is  peculiar  to  the  malleable  metals ; 
which,  when  fractured,  present  sharp  protruding  points. 

H&matite,  is  derived  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying  blood-red  ;  it  was  first  applied 
by  mineralogists  to  the  variety  of  iron  ore  which  now  is  called  the  red  haema- 
tite ;  but  has  since  been  extended  to  other  iron  ores  of  the  same  structure, 
but  differing  in  colour.  We  have  also  brown  haematites,  and  black  hsema 


3G4  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c. 

Hepatic.  A  term  derived  from  the  Latin,  hepar,  the  liver  ;  it  is  applied  either  to 
colour  or  form.  We  have  hepatic  pyrites,  hepatic  quicksilver;  hepatite,  &c. 

Hydrate,  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  (udor,)  water ;  and  is  applied  to  certain  of 
those  minerals  (as  the  hydrate  of  magnesia)  of  which  water  forms  an  ingredi- 
ent in  very  large  proportion. 

Imbedded.  A  mineral  found  in  a  mass  of  another  substance,  is  said  to  be  imbedded 
in  it.  Crystallized  quartz  occurs  imbedded  in  Carrara  marble.  It  also  occurs 
partly  imbedded  in  other  substances,  as  in  fluor. 

Interlacing.  Interlaced.  When  fibres  or  crystals  of  a  mineral  are  found  inter- 
mingling with  each  other  in  various  directions,  they  are  said  to  be  interlacing, 
or  interlaced. 

Inventing.  A  mineral  coating,  or  covering  another,  is  sometimes  described  as  in- 
vesting it. 

Iridiscent.  This  term  relates  only  to  the  colour  with  which  the  surfaces  of  some 
minerals  are  naturally  tarnished  ;  as  yellow  copper  ore,  iron  pyrites,  galena, 
sulphuret  of  antimony,  &c. 

Irised  A  mineral  is  described  as  irised,  which  exhibits  the  prismatic  colours  either 
externally,  or  internally  :  the  latter  is  generally  the  consequence  of  some  inju- 
ry sustained  by  the  mineral. 

Lamellae.  If  a  mineral  be  found  in  very  minute,  thin  plates,  it  is  said  to  occur  in 
lamella. 

Lamellar.  This  term  relates  to  structure.  When  a  mineral  can  be  fractured,  or 
cleaved  into  regular  and  parallel  plates,  its  structure  is  said  to  be  lamellar ;  and 
the  portions  thus  obtained  arc  termed  laminae,  or  lamellaj ;  these  terms  have 
been  adopted  from  the  Latin,  in  which  they  were  almost  synonymously  used  to 
express  thin  plates  of  any  substance. 

Lamellar  distinct  concretions.  This  term  is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  form 
of  certain  minerals  (as  the  oxide  of  uranium)  consisting  of  separate  tabular 
crystals. 

LamtUiform.    A  mineral  consisting  of  lamellae,  is  said  to  be  lamellifprm. 

Lenticular,  is  employed  to  express  the  form  of  certain  crystals  which  are  nearly 
Hat,  and  convex  above  and  beneath  ;  and  which  consequently  resemble  a  com- 
mon lens. 

Malleability.  Some  of  the  metals  suffer  extension  when  beaten  with  a  hammer  ; 
and  are  therefore  termed  malleable  metals.  Native  gold  and  native  silver  are 
very  malleable  metals. 

Massive.  This  term  is  sometimes  used  in  describing  a  substance  of  indeterminate 
form,  whatever  may  be  its  internal  structure;  but  is  more  commonly  applied 
to  those  minerals  which  possess  regular  internal  structure,  without  any  partic- 
ular external  form. 

Molybdate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  molybdic  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as 
with  oxide  of  lead,  in  the  molybdate  of  lead. 

Muriate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  muriatic  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as  with 
soda,  in  the  muriate  of  soda. 

Natural  joints.  Such  minerals  as  can  be  broken  into  regular  forms,  as  the  cube, 
rhomboid,  &c.  can  be  cleaved  into  those  forms,  only  in  the  direction  of,  or 
along  their  natural  joints.  In  some  minerals,  however,  the  natural  joints  are 
perceptible  by  the  assistance  of  a  strong  light. 

Nacreous,  relates  to  lustre  ;  and  is  employed  to  express  the  lustre  of  some  miner- 
als (as  of  pearl  spar)  which  greatly  resembles  that  of  pearl.  Nacre  dePerle, 
in  French,  signifies  Mother  of  Pearl. 

Nitrate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  nitric  acid  is  combined  with  abase,  as  with  pot- 
ash,  in  the  nitrate  of  potash. 

Nodular.  A  mineral  which  presents  irregularly  globular  elevations,  is  termed  Nod- 
ular. Flint  is  found  in  nodular  masses. 

Nitre-muriatic  acid.    A  mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acid. 


Oblique  prism,  see  Prism. 

Obtuse  octahedron,  see  Octohedron. 

Obtuse  rhomboid,  see  Rhomboid. 

Octohedron.  Octohedron  8  are  of  several  kinds.  An  octahedron  is  sometimes  de- 
scribed as  two  four-sided  pyramids,  base  to  base.  In  the  regular  Octohedron, 
the  three  sides  of  f-ach  plane  are  of  the  same  length  In  the  obtuse  octohe- 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c.  365 

dron,  the  base  is  longer  than  the  two  sides.  In  the  acute  octohedron,  the  base 
is  shorter  than  the  two  sides.  In  some  obtuse  and  acute  octahedrons,  the  base 
is  square,  in  others  rectangular,  but  not  square.  In  the  rhomboidal  octohe- 
dron, the  common  base  is  a  rhomb  or  rhombic  ;  and  the  three  sides  of  each 
plane  are  of  different  lengths.  In  the  cuneiform  octohedron,  the  common 
base  of  the  pyramids  is  not  square,  and  the  planes  are  not  all  equal,  but  resem- 
ble each  other,  two  and  two,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  pyramid. 

Opa/ce.  Those  minerals  are  opake  which  do  not  transmit  a  perceptible  ray  of  light 
even  through  the  thinnest  and  smallest  pieces. 

Glide.  This  term  is  used  mineralogically  to  designate  metallic  minerals,  in  which 
the  metal  is  combined  with  any  proportion  of  oxygen,  which  is  less  than  suffi- 
ces lo  convert  it  into  an  acid.  Iron  is  found  in  different  slates  of  oxidation. 
Every  metal  which  is  found  united  with  an  acid,  is,  when  so  combined,  in  the 
state  of  an  oxide ;  but  when  united  with  sulphur,  the  metals  are  not  in  the 
state  of  oxides,  but  in  the  metallic  state. 

Pass  into.  One  mineral  is  said  to  pass  into  another,  when  both  are  found  so  blend- 
ed in  the  same  sper.imen,  that  it  is  impossible  to  decide  where  the  one  termin- 
ates, and  the  other  begins.  Flint  is  found  passing  into  chalcedony. 

Pectinated.  If  a  mineral  exhibit  short  filaments,  crystals,  or  branches  which  are 
nearly  parallel  and  equidistant,  it  is  pectinated ;  pecten,  in  Latin,  signifies  a 
comb. 

Peroxide,  when  a  metal  has  the  largest  quantity  of  oxygen. 

Pot  ous.  A.  mineral  is  said  to  be  porous,  when  it  is  traversed  in  different  directions 
with  communicating  holes  which  pass  through  the  substance. 

Protoxide,  when  a  metal  has  the  smallest  quantity  of  oxygen. 

Phosphate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  phosphoric  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as 
with  lime,  in  the  phosphate  of  lime. 

Prism.  Prisms  have  four  or  more  sides  surrounding  the  axis:  they  are  some- 
times terminated  by  a  single  plane,  and  when  this  plane  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis,  we  have  a  right  prism;  but  if  the  terminating  plane  be  not.  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis,  we  have  an  oblique  prism.  If  the  sides  of  a  quadrangular 
prism  are  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  we  have  a  rectangular  prism,  and  if 
the  sides  be  of  equal  width,  a  square  prism,  and  its  height  is  either  greater  or 
less  than  that  of  the  cube. 

Pulverulent.  When  th«  particles  of  a  mineral  are  very  minute  and  cohere  very 
slightly,  or  not  at  all,  it  is  said  to  be  pulverulent ;  or  in  the  pulverulent  state. 

Radiated;  radiafus,  in  Latin,  signifies  beset  with  rays;  when  the  crystals  of  a 
mineral  are  so  disposed  as  to  diverge  from  a  centre,  they  are  said  to  be  radi- 
ated. 

Ramose;  ramus,  in  Latin,  signifies  the  branch  of  a  tree  ;  a  mineral  having  that  ap- 
pearance is  described  as  being  ramose. 

Rectangular  prism,  see  Prism. 

Refractory.  The  term  is  used  both  chemically  and  mechanically  in  relation  to 
minerals.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to  those  which  strongly  resist  the  applica- 
tion of  heat ;  and  occasionally  to  some  whose  toughness  enables  them  to  resist 
repeated  blows. 

Reniform.     Kidney-shaped  ;  ren,  in  Latin,  signifies  kidney. 

Retiform,  Reticulated.  Minerals  occurring  in  parallel  fibres,  crossed  at  right 
angles  by  other  fibres  which  also  are  parallel,  exhibit  squares  like  the  meshes 
of  a  net.  Retis,  in  Latin,  signifies  a  net.  We  have  reticulated  native  silver, 
native  copper,  red  oxide  of  copper,  &c.  And  it  may  be  remarked  that  such 
minerals  as  occur  reticulated,  generally  assume  the  cube,  as  one  of  their  crys- 
talline forms. 

Rhomboid.  Rhomboids  are  of  two  kinds,  obtuse  and  acute.  In  each  there  are 
two  points  that  may  be  termed  the  apices.  The  planes  of  the  obtuse  rhom- 
boid, meet  at  each  apex  under  one  obtuse  and  two  acute  angles;  while  the 
planes  of  the  acute  rhomboid  meet  at  the  apex  under  acute  angles. 

Schistose  structure.  Minerals  which  split  only  in  one  direction,  and  present  frag- 
ments which  are  parallel,  but  of  unequal  thickness,  which  also  are  not  smooth 
and  even,  and  are  without  lustre,  are  said  to  possess  a  schistose  structure. 
Schist,  in  the  German,  signifies  slate. 

Secondary  crystals,  or  forms.  Such  crystals  as  do  not  exhibit  any  portion  of  the 
primary  planes,  are  termed  secondary  crystals.  Thus,  in  fluor,  the  cube  is  a 
secondary  crystal. 

Sectile.  The  term  sectile  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  seco,  to  cut.  Those  minerals 
are  termed  sectile  which  are  midway  between  the  brittle  and  the  malleable, 

31* 


366  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  &c. 

A.  slice  or  portion  cut  from  a  sectile  mineral,  is  fragile,  and  the  new  surface 
on  the  mass  is  smooth  and  shining.  Plumbago  and  the  soapstone  are  both 
sectile. 

Semi-transparent.  A  mineral  is  said  to  be  semi-transparent  when  an  object  is  not 
distinctly  seen  through  it. 

Slaty  structure.    This  term  is  synonymous  with  schistose  structure,  which  see. 

Specular  Minerals,  are  those  which  present  a  smooth  and  brilliant  surface  which 
reflects  light ;  those  which  present  only  one  such  surface,  which  is  not  crys- 
talline, are  commonly  termed  specular ;  but  among  crystallized  minerals,  we 
have  specular  iron,  from  the  brilliancy  of  its  planes.  Speculum,  in  Latin,  sig- 
nifies a  looking-glass. 

Specular  and  Splintery  Fracture,  belong  to  imperfectly  crystalline  minerals.  The 
fractures  do  not  greatly  differ  :  they  are  both  irregular ;  the  specular  is  shorter 
and  more  pointed  than  the  splintery. 

Stalactitiform,  (Stalagma,)  in  the  Greek,  signifies  a  drop,  an  icicle.  Stalactitiform 
minerals  greatly  resemble  icicles  in  shape. 

Stalagmite.  A  stalagmite  is  the  deposition  afforded  by  the  water  dropping  from  a 
stalactite,  as  on  the  floor  of  a  cavern. 

Stellated.  When  the  crystals  or  fibres  of  a  mineral  diverge  all  round  a  common 
centre,  it  is  said  to  be  stellated  :  Stella,  in  Latin,  signifies  a  star. 

Strict,  Striated.  The  slight  channels  occasionally  observable  on  the  planes  of 
crystallized  minerals  are  termed  stria},  and  the  crystals  on  which  they  are  seen 
are  said  to  be  striated.  The  striaj  are  commonly  parallel,  and  generally  indicate 
the  direction  in  which  crystals  may  be  cleaved.  Stria,  in  Latin,  signifies  a 
groove,  or  channel. 

Sulphate.  A  mineral  in  which  the  sulphuric  acid  is  combined  with  a  base,  as  with 
lime,  in  the  sulphate  of  lime. 

Sulphure.t.  A  metallic  mineral  in  which  the  metal  is  combined  with  sulphur.  In 
these  minerals,  the  metal  is  not  in  the  state  of  an  oxide,  but  in  the  metallic  state. 

Tabular.  When  this  term  is  used  in  relation  to  structure,  it  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
schistose  or  slaty.  Talc,  mica,  and  roofing  slate,  are  described  by  the  German 
School,  as  possessing  a  tabular  structure.  This  term  is  used  more  generally 
to  express  the  external  form  of  such  crystals  as  are  nearly  flat :  these  are 
termed  tabular  crystals,  from  the  Latin,  tabula,  a  table  board. 

Toughness,  relates  to  internal  texture.  Those  minerals  which  are  bruised,  or  suf- 
fer depression  by  repeated  blows,  in  the  attempt  to  fracture  them,  are  esteem- 
ed to  be  tough. 

Translucent.  A  mineral  through  which  an  object  cannot  be  seen,  but  which 
transmits  some  light,  is  termed  translucent.  Rock  salt,  sometimes  quartz,  flint, 
and  fluor,  &c.  are  translucent:  many  minerals  are  translucent  on  the  edges,  as 
common  marble,  <fcc. 

Transparent.  Those  minerals  are  transparent  through  which  an  object  may  be 
clearly  seen. 

Tubercular.  A  mineral  whose  unevenness  of  surface  arises  from  small  and  some- 
what round  elevations,  is  said  to  be  tubercular.  Flint  is  sometimes  tubercular. 

Tuberous;  exhibiting  somewhat  circular  knobs,  or  elevations. 

Unctuous.  The  term  relates  to  the  touch.  Pipe-clay  is  somewhat  unctuous : 
fuller's  earth  is  unctuous  ;  plumbago  and  soapstone  are  very  unctuous.— Phil- 
lip's Mineralogy. 

Vesicular.  A  mineral  is  said  to  be  vesicular,  when  it  has  small  and  somewhat 
round  caviiies,  both  internally  and  externally.  Lava,  pumice,  limestone,  basalt, 
•fee.  are  sometimes  vesicular;  from  the  Latin,  vesicula,  a  little  bladder. 

Vitreous ;  from  the  Latin,  vitreus,  glassy;  minerals  having  the  lustre  of  glass  are 
said  to  possess  the  vitreous  lustre. 


A    TABLE, 

Exhibiting  the  angular  admeasurements  of  crystals  by 
Reflecting  Goniometer,  according  to  Phillips. 


Actynolite.    Rhombic  prism,  124°  30'  and  55°  30'  alternately. 

Adaiuria.    In  one  direction,  four  of  90° ;  in  another,  four,  alternately  of  59°  25' 

and  120°  37' ;  and  in  another,  four,  alternately  of  67°  15'  and  112°  45'.    These 

are  obtained  with  groat  difficulty. 
Albite.    In  one  direction,  alternately  93°  30'  and  86°  30' ;  in  another,  119°  30'  and 

60°  30' ;  arid  in  another  direction.  115°  and  65°. 
Amblij^mite.    Rhombic  prism,  106°  10'  and  73°  50'  alternately.    (See  carbonate 

01  7.1  nc.) 

Amef/ii/st.    Primitive  rhomboid,  91°  15'  and  85°  45'  alternately.    (See  quartz.) 
Ana/dine.     Primitive  cube,  90°.  and  90°  in  all  directions. 
AnduLnsile     Rhombic  prism,  83°  40'  and  91°  20'  alternately. 
Anlliuiihyllite.     Rhombic  prism,  125°  and  55°  alter-nately. 
Arficr.dsonite.    Rhombic  prism,  123°  55'  on  one  of  the  lateral  planes.  (Hornblende, 

124°  30'.) 

Arragonite.     Rhombic  prism,  110°  5'  and  63°  55'  alternately. 
Arseniale  of  copper.     Rhomboidal,  110°  30'  and  69°  30'  alternately. 
Arseniale  of  cupper.    Oblique  prismatic,  124°  and  56'  alternately. 
Arseniale  of  c.ofiper.     Right  prismatic.  110°  5'  and  69°  10'. 
Aiseniatc  of  copper.    Martial.     Primitive  rhomb  120°  and  60°. 
Arsenic,  sulphuret  of.    Rliombic  prism,  lateral  planes,  74°  15'  and  105°  45'  alter- 
nately. 

Arsenical  iron.    Lateral  planes,  1 11°  12'  and  68°  48'  alternately. 
Augffe.    Primitive  rhomb,  87°  5'  and  92°  55'  alternately.    (.See  specular  iron,  and 

Bournonite.) 

Barytey,  sulphate  of.    Primary  prism,  from  fractured  surfaces,  101°  42' and  78° 

18'  alternately. 
Bismuth,  sulphuret  of.    After  cleavage  in  one  direction,  90°,  \vithindications  of 

cleavage,  parallel  to  130°  and  50°. 
Bitter-spar.     Primitive  rhomb,  106°  15'  and  73°  45'.    Also,  in  some  specimens, 

107°  20'  and  72°  40',  alternately.     (See  calcareous  spar,  and  cyanite.) 
Borule  of  lime.     Primitive  rhomb,  103°  40'  and  76°  20',  alternately. 
Borute  of  soda.     Primitive  rhomb.  86°  3C'  and  93°  30',  alternately. 
Bournonilc.     Primitive  90°  and  90°,  or  a  rhomb  of  93°  30'  and  86°  30',  alternately, 

t.See  specular  iron,  augite,  andborate  of  lime.) 
Bronzite.    Cleavage  parallel  to  the-planes  of  a  rhomb  of  100°  and  80°. 

Calcareous  spar.    Primary,  obtuse  rhomboidJKf  105°  5',  and  74°  55',  alternately.  It 

is  readily  obtained.    (See  bitter-spar.)    • 

Carbonate  of  zinc.     Cleavage  parallel  to  planes  of  106°  30'  and  73°  30',  alternately. 
Carbonate  of  iron.     Cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  107°  and  73°. 
Carfionate  uf  lead.     Primary,  right  rhombic  prism  of  117°  and  63. 
Carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  iron.  Primitive  107°  30' and  72° 30'.  (See  bitter-spar.) 
Carbonate  of  strontian.     Primitive,  right  rhombic  prism  of  117°  32',  and  62°  28', 

alternately.     (See  carbonate  of  lead.) 

Celestine.    Primitive,  right  rhombic  prism  of  104°  and  76°.    (See  calcareous  spar.) 
Chahtiise.     Obtuse  rhomboid,  94°  46'  and  86°  14',  alternately. 
Chromate  of  iron.    Octahedron,  two  adjacent  planes,  give  an  angle  of  109°  28* 

(See  arseniate  of  iron  "> 


368  TABLE  OF  ANGLES. 

Chromate  of  lead.    Oblique  prism,  of  93°  30'  and  86°  SCK.    (See  chabaise.) 

Chrysolite.    Primitive,  a  cube. 

Cinnabar.    Acute  rhomboid,  of  71°  48'  and  103°  12'. 

Cobalt,  arsenical.     Primary,  a  cube. 

Copper,  sulphuref  of.  Double  six-sided  pyramid,  fbe  incidence  of  an  upper,  on  the 
adjacent  plane  of  the  lower  pyramid,  being  about  147°  30'. 

Copper,  muriate  of.     Primitive,  a  right  rhombic  prism,  of  100°  and  80°. 

C(>i>per,  phosphate  of.    Right  rhombic  prism,  110°  and  70°. 

Corundum.     Primary,  rhomboid,  of  86°  4'  and  93°  56'. 

Cyanite.  Primary,  a  doubly  oblique  prism,  of  106°  15'  and  73°  45'  of  the  terminal 
plane  on  the  prism,  in  one  direction,  100°  50'  and  79°  10',  and  in  another  93° 
15'  and  86°  45',  alternately.  (See  chabaise,  Sillimanite,  Cleavelandite,  and  bit- 
ter-spar.) 

Diopside.    Primary,  oblique  rhombic  prism,  of  87°  5'  and  92°  55',  alternately. 

Egeran.    Angles  of  cleavage,  90°. 

Efidote.    Primary,  right  oblique  angled  prism  of  115°  30'  and  64°  30'.    (See  arra- 

gonite.) 
Eudyalite.    Lateral  planes,  120°.    Summit,  with  the  lateral  planes.  90°. 

Felspar.    See  adularia. 

Fibrotite.     Right  prism,  with  rhombic  bases,  of  100°  and  80°. 

Fettenstein.    Cleaves  parallel  to  all  the  planes  and  diagonals  of  a  right  rhombic 

prism,  of  112°  and  68°. 
Fucite.    Cleaves  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism,  of  87°  and  93°. 

Galena.    Primary,  the  cube. 
Gehlenite.     Primary,  the  cube. 

Gluuberite.  Primary,  rhombic  prism,  lateral  planes,  83°  20' and  96°  40'.  Termin- 
al, and  lateral  planes,  104°  15'  aud  75°  45',  alternately. 

Ifedenburgite.    Cleavage,  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  rhombic  prism,  of  124°  30'  and 

55°  30',  alternately. 
Hornblende.    Cleavage,  parallel  to  the  sides,  of  124°  30'  and  55°  30',  alternately. 

(See  acfynolite,  and  Arfwedsonite.) 

Humite.    Right  rhombic  prism,  of  120°  and  60°.  alternately. 
Hypersthene.    Rhombic  prism,  sides,  87°  and  93°,  alternately. 

Jdocrase.    Right  prism  with  square  bases,  of  90°  and  90°. 

Indianite.    Cleaves  into  prisms  of  95°  15'  and  84°  45',  alternately.    (See  glaube' 

rite,  quartz,  and  tabular  spar.) 

Iron,  arsenical.    Cleaves  parallel  to  111°  12'  and  68°  48',  alternately. 
Ironpyrifcs.    Primary,  a  cube,  to  all  the  parallel  planes  of  which  it  cleaves. 
Iron  pyrites,  white.     Primary,  a  right,  rhombic  prism  of  106°  and  73°.     Cleavage 

parallel  to  all  its  planes.    (See  cyanite  and  carbonate  of  iron.) 
Iron,  specular  oxide  of.    Primitive  acute  rhomboid  of  86°  10'  and  93°  50'.    (See 

augite,  Bournonite,  and  Sillimanite.) 
Iron,  carbonate  of.    Cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  an  obtuse  rhomboid  ot 

107°  and  73°.     (See  iron  pyrites,  Sillimanite,  and  cyanite.) 

Jenite.    Primary,  a  rhomboid  of  II 1°  30"  and  68°  30'.    (See  arseniate  of  copper.) 
Killinite.    Cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism  of  135°  and  45°. 

Lalrobite.  Cleavage  in  three  directions  parallel  to  all  (he  planes  of  a  doubly  ob- 
lique prism,  viz.  in  one  direction  98°  30'  and  81°  30',  in  another  91°  and  89°, 
and  in  the  third  93°  30'  and  86°  30'.  (See  specular  iron,  and  hyperathene.) 

Laumonite.  Oblique  rhombic  prism  ;  inclination  of  lateral  planes  113°  30'  ;  incli 
nation  of  terminal,  with  the  lateral  planes  86°  15'. 

Lead,  sulphate-carbonate  of.    Primary,  oblique  prism  of  120°  45' and  59°  15'. 

Lead,  sulphato-tri-carbonate  of.  Primary,  an  acute  rhomboid  of  72°  30'  and  107° 
30'.  (See  carbonate  of  iron.) 

Lead,  cupreous  sulphato-carbonate  of.  Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  95° 
and  85°. 

Lead,  sulphate  of.     Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  103°  42'  and  76°  18'. 

Lead,  molybdate  of.  Cleavage  parallel  to  an  octohedron  with  a  square  base  ;  angle 
of  two  opposite  terminal  planes  49°  45';  of  the  upper  and  lower  terminal  planes 

Ligurite.    Oblique  rhombic  prism  of  140°  and  40',  alternately. 

Manganese,  gray  oxide  of.    Cleaves  parallel  to  the  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism  of 

100°  and  80°. 

Mica.    Primary,  oblique  rhombic  prism  of  120°  and  60°. 
Muriate  of  soda.    Primary,  a  cube. 


TABLE  OF  ANGLES.  g6S 

Orpiment.    Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  100°  and  80°. 

Pargasite.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  a  rhombic  prism  of  124°  30^ 
and  55°  30',  being  the  same  with  actynolite  and  hornblende. 

Polykalite.  Cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  the  cube,  affording  brilliant  faces 
of  90°  in  every  direction. 

Prehnite.    Primary  100°  and  80°. 

Pyroxene.    See  augitc. 

Quartz.    Primary  rhomboid  94°  15'  and  85°  46'. 

Realger.    Cleaves  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  an  oblique  rhombic  prism,  whose 

lateral  planes  are  74°  15'  and  105°  45',  alternately. 
Rhomb  spar.    See  bitter-spar. 
Ruby.    Oriental,  primary,  acute  rhomboid  of  93° 56'  and  86°  4'. 

Sahlite.    Primary  rhomb  92°  55'  and  87°  5' ;  the  same  as  augite. 

Sapphire.    The  same  as  ruby. 

Selenite.  Primary,  a  right  oblique  angled  prism,  of  which  the  bases  are  oblique 
angled  parallelograms  of  113°  8'  and  66°  52'. 

Silver.  Flexible  sulphuret  of.  Oblique  angled  prism  of  125°  and  55°  alternately, 
on  the  lateral  planes. 

Silver,  red.    Primary,  obtuse  rhomboid,  of  108°  30'  and  71°  30'. 

Sphenc.  Primary,  an  oblique  rhombic  prism,  lateral  angles  133°  30'  and  46°  3(K, 
alternately. 

Spinellane.    Primary,  the  rhombic  dodecahedron,  of  90°  and  120°. 

Spodumene.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes  and  shorter  diagonal  of  a  rhombic 
prism  of  100°  and  80°  ;  the  same  as  Prehnite. 

Staurotide.     Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  129°  20'  and  50°  40'. 

Sulphate  of  slrontian.     See  celestine. 

Sulphuret  of  antimony'.  Primary,  right  rhombic  prism  of  88°  30'  and 91  30*,  alter- 
nately. 

Tabular  spar.    Cleaves  into  prisms  of  95°  20'  and  84°  40',  alternately.    (See  cupe- 

rous  sulphuret  of  lead,  indianite,  and  quartz.) 
Tfiornsonite.    Cleaves  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  of  90°. 
Tin,  oxide  of.    Primary,  an  obtuse  octohedron  with  a  square  base,  the  angle  over 

the  apex  being  1 12°  10',  and  a  plane  of  one  pyramid,  on  the  adjoining  plane  of 

the  other,  67°  50'. 
Tungstate  of  lime.    The  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  a  plane  of  the  upper,  with 

the  adjoining  plane  of  the  lower  pyramid.  128°  40'. 

Topaz.    Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  124°  22'  and  55°  38,  alternately. 
Tourmaline.    Primary,  an  obtuse  rhomboid  of  133°  30' and  46°  10',  alternately 

Wavellite:    Cleavage  parallel  to  both  sides  of  a  prism  of  122°  15'  and  57°  45'. 
Yenite.    See  Jenite. 

Zinc,  red  oxide  of.    Cleaves  parallel  to  the   planes  of  a  six-sided  prism,  each 

lateral  plane  on  the  adjoining  one  being  120°,  and  the  terminal  on  the  lateral 

plane  90°. 
Zinc,  silicious  oxide  of.    Primary,  a  right  rhombic  prism  of  102°  30'  and  77°  30', 

alternately. 
Zinc,  carbonate  of.    Cleavage  parallel  to  all  the  planes  of  a  rhomboid  of  about  105° 

30'  and  73°  30'.    (See  arnblygonite,  bitter-spar,  and  carburet  of  iron.) 
Zircon.    Primary,  an  obtuse  octohedron  of  95°  40'  and  84°  20'.    (See  glauberite, 

indianite,  quartz,  dec. 
Zoiaite.    Cleaves  parallel  to  the  sides  of  a  rhombic  prism  of  120°  and  60°. 


BULLIONS' 

SERIES  OF  GRAMMARS, 

ENGLISH,  LATIN  AND  GREEK, 

ON  THE  SAME  PLAN, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

Colleges,  Academies  &  Common  Schools. 

(Published  by  Pratt,  Woodford  &  Co.,  N.  Y.) 

In  preparing  this  series,  the  main  object  has  been,  First: 
To  provide  for  the  use  of  schools  a  set  of  class  books  on 
this  important  branch  of  study,  more  simple  in  their  ar- 
rangement, more  complete  in  their  parts,  and  better  adapted 
to  the  purposes  of  public  instruction,  than  any  heretofore  in 
use  in  our  public  Seminaries :  and  Secondly,  to  give  the 
whole  a  uniform  character  by  following,  in  each,  substan- 
tially, the  same  arrangement  of  parts,  using  the  same 
grammatical  terms,  and  expressing  the  definitions,  rules, 
and  leading  parts,  as  nearly  as  the  nature  of  the  case 
would  admit  in  the  same  language ;  and  thus  to  render  the 
study  of  one  Grammar  a  more  profitable  introduction  to  the 
study  of  another  than  it  can  be,  when  the  books  used  dif- 
fer so  widely  from  each  other  in  their  whole  style  and  ar- 
rangement, as  those  now  in  use  commonly  do.  By  this 
means,  it  is  believed,  much  time  and  labor  will  be  saved, 
both  to  teacher  and  pupil, — the  analogy  and  peculiarities 
of  the  different  languages  being  constantly  kept  in  view,  will 
show  what  is  common  to  all,  or  peculiar  to  each, — the  confu- 
sion and  difficulty  unnecessarily  occasioned  by  the  use  of 


elementary  works,  differing  widely  from  each  other  in  lan- 
guage and  structure  will  be  avoided, — and  the  progress  of 
the  stuc'ent  rendered  much  more  rapid,  easy  anr*  satis- 
factory. 

These  works  form  a  complete  series  of  elementary 
books,  in  which  the  substance  of  the  best  Grammars  in 
each  language  has  been  compressed  into  a  volume  of 
convenient  size,  handsomely  printed  on  a  fine  paper, 
neatly  and  strongly  bound,  and  at  a  moderate  price. 
The  whole  series  is  now  submitted  to  the  judgment,  of 
a  discerning  public,  and  especially  to  teachers  and  su- 
perintendents of  schools,  and  seminaries  of  learning  through- 
out the  United  States. 

The  following  notices  and  recommendations  of  the 
works  separately,  and  of  the  series,  both  from  individual* 
of  the  highest  standing  in  the  community,  and  from  the 
public  press,  will  furnish  some  idea  of  the  plan  pro* 
posed,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  executed 

I.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Comprising  the  substance  of  the  most  approved  English  Grammar* 
extant — with  copious  exercises  in  PARSING  and  SYNTAX.  Fifth  edition 
with  an  APPENDIX,  of  various  and  useful  matter,  pp.  216,  12  ino.  New- 
York,  Robinson,  Pratt  &  Co. 

This  work,  on. the  plan  of  Murray's  Grammar,  has  been  prepared  with 
much  care,  and  with  special  reference  to  the  wants  of  our  Common 
Schools.  It  comprises  in  a  condensed  form,  and  expressed  in  plain  and 
perspicuous  language,  all  that  is  useful  and  important  in  the  works  of 
the  latest  and  best  writers  on  this  subject, — an  advantage  possessed  in  an 
equal  degree  by  no  similar  work  now  in  use.  It  is  the  result  not  only 
of  much  study  and  careful  comparison,  but  of  nearly  twenty- fivs  years 
experience  in  the  school  room,  during  which,  the  wants  of  the  pupiJ 
and  the  character  of  books  best  adapted  to  those  wants,  have  been  care- 
fully noted  ;  and  its  adaptation  to  the  purpose  of  instruction  has  now  been 
thoroughly  tested  and  approved  in  some  of  the  best  schools  in  this  coun- 
try It  is  beautifully  printed  on  a  fine  strong  paper,  neatly  and  firmly 


bound,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  complete,  useful,  and  economical  school 
books  ever  offered  to  the  public.     The  following  are  a  few  extracts  from, 

NOTICES  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  undersigned  have  great  satisfaction  in  recommending  to  the  pufcu 
lie,  "The  Principles  of  English  Grammar,"  by  Prof.  BULLIONS,  of  tb«j 
Albany  Academy.  Proceeding  upon  the  plan  of  Murray,  he  has  availed 
himself  of  the  labors  of  the  most  distinguished  grammarians,  both  at 
home  and  abroad  ;  and  made  such  a  happy  use  of  the  helps  afforded  him, 
that  we  know  of  no  work  of  the  kind,  in  the  same  compass,  which  is 
equal  to  it  in  point  of  merit.  Among  its  many  excellencies,  it  is  not  the 
least,  that  Prof.  B.  has  given  a  practical  illustration  of  every  principle 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  ;  and  the  possession  of  his  Grammar  en- 
tirely  supersedes  the  necessity  of  procuring  a  separate  volume  of  Exer- 
cises on  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  In  a  word,  we  can  truly  say,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  author,  "  that  there  is  nothing  of  much  importance  in 
Murray's  larger  Grammar,  or  in  the  works  of  subsequent  writers,  that 
will  not  be  found  condensed  here." 

JOHN  LUDLOW,  ALONZO  CRITTENTON, 

ISAAC  FERRIS,  J.  M.  GARFIELD, 

ALFRED  CONKLINO,          ROBERT  McKfiE. 
T.  ROMEYN  BECK. 
Albany,  October  8,  1842. 

[An  Extract  from  the  Minutes  of  the  Board  of    Trustees  of  the  Al. 

bany  Female  Academy.] 

At  a  meeting  of  the  trustees  of  the  Albany  Female  Academy,  held  on 
the  third  instant,  the  book  committee  reported,  that  they  had  examined 
Professor  Bullions'  English  Grammar,  recently  published  in  this  city  : 
and  that  in  their  opinion,  it  contains  all  that  is  useful  in  the  most  im- 
proved treatises  now  in  use,  as  well  as  much  valuable  original  matter : 
that  from  the  copious  exercises  in  false  syntax,  it  will  supersede  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  separate  volume  on  that  subject ;  and  recommend  that  it 
should  be  used  as  the  text  book  in  this  institution. 

On  motion,  it  was  resolved,  that  the  report  of  the  committee  be  ac- 
cepted, and  the  treatise  on  English  Grammar ;  by  the  Rev.  Peter  Bui. 
lions,  adopted  as  the  text  book  in  this  academy. 

An  Extract  from  the  Minutes. 

A.  CRITTENTON,  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees,  and 

Principal  of  the  Academy. 
Albany,  October  13,  1834. 

Sing  Sing,  November  1,  1834. 

DEAR  SIR — I  have  examined  your  English  Grammar  with  no  small 
degree  of  satisfaction ;  and  though  I  am  not  in  the  habit  of  recommend, 
ing  books  in  this  manner,  I  am  constrained  in  this  case  to  say,  I  think 
you  have  conferred  another  important  favour  on  the  cause  of  education 


The  great  defects  of  most  of  the  English  grammars  now  in  use,  partiru 
Jarly  in  the  omission  of  many  necessary  definitions,  or  iu  the  want  o/ 
perspicuity  in  those  given,  and  also  in  the  rules  of  construction,  are  iu  a 
great  measure  happily  supplied.  I  am  so  well  pleased  with  the  result  of 
youi  labors,  that  I  have  adopted  it,  (as  I  did  your  Greek  Grammar)  for 
both  our  institutions.  Yours  respectfully, 

NATHANIEL  S.  PRIME,  Principal  of 
REV.  P.  BULLIONS,  Mi.  Pleasant  Academy, 

The  undersigned  hold  the  responsibility  of  recommendation  as  an  im 
portant  one — often  abused,  and  very  frequently  used  to  obliged  a  per- 
sonal  friend,  or  to  get  rid  of  an  urgent  applicant.  They  further  appeal 
to  their  own  conduct  for  years  past,  to  show  that  they  have  only  occa- 
sionally assumed  this  responsibility  ;  and  therefore  feel  the  greater  confi- 
dence in  venturing  to  recommend  the  examination,  and  the  adoption  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Bullions'  English  Grammar,  as  at  once  the  most  concise 
and  the  most  comprehensive  of  any  with  which  they  are  acquainted  ;  as 
furnishing  a  satisfactory  solution  of  nearly  all  the  difficulties  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  ;  as  containing  a  full  series  of  exercises  in  false  syntax, 
with  rules  for  their  correction ;  and  finally,  that  the  arrangement,  is  in 
every  way  calculated  to  carry  the  pupil  from  step  to  step  in  the  success- 
ful acquisition  of  that  most  important  end  of  education,  the  knowledge 
and  use  of  the  English  language.  GIDEON  -HAWLEY, 

T.  ROMEYN  BECK, 

March  1,  1842.  JOHN  A.  DIX. 

A  cursory  examination  of  the  English  Grammar  of  Dr.  Bullions,  has 
satisfied  me,  that  it  has  just  claims  on  public  favour.  It  is  concise  and 
simple  ;  the  matter  is  well  digested  ;  the  exercises  excellent,  and  the  ty- 
pographical execution  worthy  of  all  praise.  The  subscriber  takes  plea- 
suie  in  recommending  it  to  the  notice  of  Teachers,  and  of  all  persons 
interested  in  education.  ALONZO  POTTER. 

Union  College,  Sept.  6,  1842. 

The  English  Grammar  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bullions,  appears  to  me,  to  be 
the  best  manual  which  has  appeared  as  yet.  With  all  the  good  points 
of  Murray,  it  has  additions  and  emendations,  which  I  cannot  but  think 
would  have  commended  themselves  to  Murray  himself,  and  if  I  were  a 
teacher  of  English  Grammar,  I  would  without  hesitation  prefer  it  to  any 
other  book  of  the  kind,  JAMES  W.  ALEXANDER, 

Professor  of  Belles  Lettres,  College  of  N.  J. 

Princeton,  Aug.  15,  1842 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev.  BENJAMIN  HALE,  D.D.,  President  oj  Ge 

neva  College  N.   Y. 

Rev.  DR.  BULLIONS. — Dear  Sir — I  have  lately  procured  a  copy  of  your 
English  Grammar,  and  given  it  such  attention  as  my  time  has  permittedj 
and  I  do  not  hesitate  to  express  my  conviction,  that  it  is  entitled  to  higher 


confidence  than  any  other  English  Grammar  in  use  among  us,  and  my 
wish,  that  it  may  come  into  general  use.  I  have  seen  enough  to  satisfy 
me,  that  you  have  diligently  consulted  the  best  sources,  and  combined 
your  materials  with  discrimination  and  judgment.  We  have,  as  a  facul. 
ty,  recommended  it  by  placing  it  on  the  list  of  books  to  be  used  by  can 
didates  in  preparation  for  this  college.  I  have  personally  recommended 
it,  and  will  continue  to  recommend  it,  as  I  have  opportunity. 

Very  respectfully,  dear  sir,  your  friend,  &c. 

BENJAMIN  HALE. 
Geneva  College,  July  13,  1842. 


Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev.   CVRUS  MASON,  D.D.,  Rector  of  the  Grammar 
School  in  the  University  of  New-  York. 

University,  New-York,  June  13th,  1842. 
RKV.  DR.  BULLIONS. — Dear  Sir — At  the  suggestion^  of  the   late  Mr. 


Leckie,  head  classical  master  in  the  Grammar  School,  we  began  to  in- 
troduce  your  grammars  at  the  opening  of  the  present  year.  We  have 
made  use  chiefly  of  the  Greek  and  English  Grammar.  The  result  thus 
far  is  a  conviction  that  we  have  profited  by  the  change,  which  I  was 
very  slow  to  make  ;  and  I  doubt  not  that  our  farther  experience  will  con. 
firm  the  good  opinion  we  entertain  of  your  labors  in  this  department  of 
learning.  Wishing  you  a  large  reward,  I  remain,  very  truly  yours, 

C.  MASON,  Rector. 

NOTICES  FROM  THE  PUBLIC  PRESS. 

From  a  REPORT  PRESENTED  TO  THE  JEFFERSON  Co.  ASSO- 
CIATION OF  TEACHERS,  on  the  English  Grammars  now  in 
use,  the  merits  of  each,  and  the  best  method  of  teaching 
them.  By  the  Rev.  J.  R.  BOYD,  Principal  of  Black  Ri- 
ver Institute. 

"  2.  The  Grammar  by  Prof.  BULLIONS  of  the  Albany  Aca- 
demy, is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  Brown ; 
and  while  it  is  not  so  copious  in  its  exercises,  nor  so  full  in 
its  observations  upon  the  language,  yet  it  is  far  more  simple 
in  its  phraseology,  more  clear  in  its  arrangement,  more  free 
perhaps  from  errors  or  things  needing  improvement,  and  at 
the  same  time  contains  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  learned  in 
gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  our  language.  The 
Rules  of  Syntax  and  observations  under  them,  are  expressed 
generally  in  the  best  manner.  The  Verb  is  most  vividly  ex- 
plained, and  that  portion  of  the  work  contains  much  not  to 
be  found  in  other  grammars,  while  it  judiciously  omits  a 
great  deal  to  be  found  in  them,  that  is  unworthy  of  insertion. 
"  It  is  excellent  upon  Prosody,  and  upon  Poetic  Diction 


_.. 

and  gives  an  admirable  summary  of  directions  for  correct 
and  elegant  writing,  and  the  different  forms  of  composition. 
The  typography  of  the  book  cannot  be  too  highly  commended 
— a  circumstance  that  greatly  affects  the  comfort  and  improve- 
ment of  the  learner. 

"  This  grammar  is  equally  well  adapted  to  the  beginner 
and  to  the  advanced  scholar.  The  course  of  instruction 
which  Prof.  B.  recommends  in  the  use  of  his  grammar, 
seems  wisely  adapted  to  secure  in  the  readiest  manner  the 
improvement  of  the  pupil.  The  book  is  not  so  large  as  to 
appal  the  beginner,  nor  so  small  as  to  be  of  little  use  to  those 
advanced.  On  the  whole,  in  my  judgment,  no  work  has  yet 
appeared,  which  presents  equally  high  claims  to  general  use. 
It  is  copious  without  redundancy — it  is  well  printed,  and 
forms  a  volume  pleasing  to  the  eye.  It  is  lucid  and  simple, 
while  in  the  main,  it  is  philosophically  exact. — Among  the 
old  Grammars,  our  decided  preference  is  given  to  that  of 
Prof.  Bullions." 

[From  the  Albany  Argus.] 

PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. — This  work  besides  containing  a 
full  system  of  grammar,  is  rendered  more  immediately  useful  for  acade- 
mies and  common  schools,  by  containing  copious  examples  in  good  gram, 
mar  for  parsing,  and  in  bad  grammar  for  correction ;  and  all  of  these  are 
arranged  directly  under  the  rule  to  which  they  apply.  Thus,  instead  of 
two  books,  which  are  required,  (the  grammar  a«d  the  exercises,)  the 
learner  finds  both  in  one,  for  a  price  at  least  not  greater  than  the  others. 

[From  the  Newburgh  Journal.] 

BULLIONS'  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. — It  is  not  one  of  the  smallest  evils  con- 
nected  with  our  present  system  of  common  school  education,  that  our 
schools  are  flooded  with  such  a  variety  of  books  on  elementary  subjects, 
not  only  differing  in  arrangement,  but  frequently  involving  absurd  arid 
contradictory  principles.  And  to  no  subject  are  these  remarks  more  ap- 
plicable^ than  to  English  Grammar.  And  until  some  one  elementary 
work  of  an  approved  character  shall  be  generally  introduced  into  our 
common  schools,  we  despair  of  realizing  a  general  proficiency  in  this 
important  branch  of  education,  It  is  with  pleasure,  therefore,  that  we 
witness  the  increasing  popularity  of  "  Bullions'  English  Grammar." 
From  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  work,  from  the  publication  of 
the  first  edition,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  it  the  best  Gram- 
mar with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  perspicuity  of  its  definitions, 
the.  correctness  of  its  principles,  the  symmetry  of  its  arrangements,  as 
well  as  the  neat  and  accurate  form  in  which  it  is  presented,  and  withal 
the  cheapness  of  the  work,  are  so  many  recommendations  to  its  general  use 


[From  the  Albany  Evening  Journal.J 

Professor  BULLIONS'  English  Gra-umar  is  obviously  the  fruit  oi  sound 
and  c.n!ightened  judgment,  patient  labor  and  close  reflection.  It  partakes 
of  the  character  both  of  an  original  work  and  of  a  compilation.  Fol. 
lowing  the  principles  of  Murray,  and  adopting  in  the  main  the  plan  oi 
Lennie,  the  most  distinguished  of  his  successors,  the  aim  of  the  author, 
as  he  states  in  his  preface,  has  been  to  correct  what  is  erroneous,  to  re. 
trench  what  is  superfluous  or  unimportant,  to  compress  what  is  prolix,  to 
elucidate  ivhat  is  obscure,  and  to  determine  what  is  left  doubtful,  in  the 
books  already  in  use.  In  laboring  to  accomplish  this  excellent  design,  he 
has  contrived  to  condense,  in  very  perspicuous  language,  within  the 
compass  of  a  small,  handsomely  printed  volume,  about  200  pages,  and 
costing  but  50  cents,  all  that  is  requisite  in  this  form  to  the  acquisition 
of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  grammar  of  our  language.  It  contains 
so  great  a  number  of  exercises  in  parsing  and  syntax,  judiciously  inter, 
spersed,  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  separate  manuals  of  exercises 
now  in  use.  Among  other  highly  useful  things  to  be  found  in  this  book, 
and  not  usually  met  with  in  works  of  this  nature,  are  some  very  valua- 
ble  critical  remarks,  and  a  pretty  long  "list  of  improper  expressions," 
which  unhappily  have  crept  into  use  in  different  parts  of  our  country. 
Under  the  head  of  Prosody,  the  author  has,  it  is  believed,  given  a  bet- 
ter explanation  of  the  principles  of  English  versification,  than  is  to  be 
found  in  any  other  work  of  this  nature  in  this  country.  In  short,  I 
hazard  the  prediction  that  this  will  be  found  to  be  decidedly  the  plainest, 
most  perfect,  and  most  useful  manual  of  English  grammar  that  has  yet 
appeared.  Z. 

EXTRACTS  FROM    LETTERS. 

The  following,  are  extracts  from  letters  from  County  Su- 
perintendents of  Common  Schools  in  the  State  of  New- York, 
to  whom  copies  of  the  work  had  been  sent  for  examination. 
From  ALEXANDER  FONDA,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schools,  Schenectady  Co. 

Schenectady,  March  30,   1842. 

DEAR  SIR — I  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  copy  of  your  English 
Grammar,  left  upon  my  office  desk  yesterday  afternoon.  When  in  your 
city  some  three  weeks  since,  I  was  presented  with  a  copy  by  S,  S.  Ran- 
dall,  Esq. ;  from  the  examination  I  was  enabled  to  give  it,  and  from  the 
opinion  expressed  in  relation  to  it,  by  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  ex- 
perienced  teachers  of  this  county,  to  whom  I  presented  it,  as  well  as 
from  the  knowledge  I  possessed  by  reputation  of  its  author,  I  had  before 
I  received  the  copy  from  you,  determined  to  introduce  it  as  far  as  I  was 
able,  as  a  class  book  in  the  schools  of  this  county. 

From  CHAUNCEY  GOODRICH,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schools,  Onondaga  Co 

Canal,  June  24,  1842. 

DEAR  SIR — Your  favor  of  the  1st  instant  has  just  come  to  hand.     The 
Grammar  referred  to  has  been  received  and  examined.     I    am  fully  sa 
tisfied  of  its  suj?erior  merits  as  a  grammar  for  common  schools,  over  any 


8 

other  work  I  have  seen.     I  shall  take  the  earliest  measures  for  its  uitnr 
duoiion  into  the  schools  under  my  supervision. 

From  ROSWELL  K.  BOURNE,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Com.  Schools,  Chenango  C» 

Pitcher,  June  30.  1842. 

DEAR  SIR — Some  time  si  nee  I  received  a  copy  of  a  work  on  English  grant 
mar,  by  the  Rev.  Peter  Bullions,  D.D.  for  which  I  arn  much  obliged.  1 
have  given  the  book  as  close  an  examination  as  circumstances  would 
permit.  The  book  is  well  got  up,  and  exhibits  the  thorough  acquaint. 
ance  of  the  author  with  his  subjdbt.  I  think  it  well  calculated  for  our 
common  schools. 

From  GARNSEY  BEACH,  Esq.  Dep.    Suot.  of  Common  Scttools,  Putnam  Co. 

Patterson,  July  2,  1842. 

DEAR  SIR — Yours  of  the  first  ult,  was  received  on  Thursday  last.     As 
it  respects  your  Grammar  I  have  carefully  examined  it,  and  without  en- 
tering into  particulars,  I  consider   it  the   best  I  have   ever  seen,  and  as 
such,  I  have  recommended  it  to  the  several  schools  under  my  care. 
From  O.  W.  RANDALL,  Esq.  Dep.  Supt.  of  Common   Schools,  Oswego  Co. 

Phoenix,  July  2,  1842. 

Mr.  P.  BULLIONS, — Dear  Sir — I  have  for  the  last  two  weeks  devoted 
some  considerable  time,  in  perusing  your  system  of  English  Grammar, 
and  in  reply  to  yours,  requesting  my  views  of  the  work,  I  can  cheer- 
fully say,  that  its  general  arrangment,  is  admirably  adapted  either  to  the 
novice  or  adept.  The  §  27th  and  §  28th  on  verbs,  with  the  attendant  remarks, 
are  highly  important,  and  essential  to  the  full  completion  of  any  system 
of  grammar.  The  work  taken  together  is  remarkable  for  simplicity, 
lucidity  and  exactness,  and  is  calculated  not  only  to  make  the  correct 
grammarian,  but  also  a  correct  prosodian.  Whatever  may  be  its  fate  in 
the  field,  it  enters  with  a  large  share  of  merit  on  its  side,  and  with  full 
as  fair  prospect  of  success  as  any  work  extant. 

From  W.  S.  PRESTON,  Esq.  Dep.   Supt.  of  Com  Schools,  Suffolk  Co.  N.  Y. 

Patchogue,  L.  I.  July  6,  1842. 

Prof.  P.  BULLIONS, — Dear  Sir — Some  time  since  I  received  a  copy  of 
your  English  Grammar,  for  which  I  am  much  obliged.  I  have  devoted 
as  much  time  to  its  perusal  as  circumstances  would  permit,  and  can  say 
of  it,  that  I  believe  it  claims  decided  pn  /erence  over  the  Grammars  go- 
nerully  used  in  schools  throughout  this  country,  and  indeed  I  may  say, 
over  the  many  works  on  that  science  extant. 

From  JAMES  HENRY,  Esq.   Dep.     Supl.  of  Common   Schools,  Herkimer  Co. 

Little-Falls,  July  11,  1842. 

Prof.  BULLIONS, — Sir — I  have  read  with  as  much  attention  as  my  avo- 
cations  would  allow,  the  work  you  had  the  kindness  to  send  me,  upon 
English  Grammar,  and  so  far  as  I  am  capable  of  forming  an  opinion  of 
the  merits  of  your  book,  I  concur  generally  in  the  views  expressed  in 
the  extract  from  the  report  of  M  Boyd,  aa  contained  in  your  circular. 


9 

LA  H.    STEVENS,  Dep.    Supt.  of  Common  Schools,  Franklin  Co.  N.  Y. 

Moira,  Aug.  27,  1842. 

Rev.  P.  BULLIONS, — Dear  Sir— On  Wednesday  the  24th  instant,  the 
committee  determined  upon  a  series  of  books,  and  I  have  the  happiness 
to  inform  you,  that  your  English  Grammar  will  be  reported  on  the  first 
Wednesday  in  October  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Association,  as  the 
most  brief,  perspicuous  and  philosophical  work,  upon  that  subject  within 
Dur  knowledge. 

from  R.  W.  FINCH,  Esq.  Dep.  Sufi,  of  Common  Schools.  Steuben  Co.  N.  ¥' 

Bath,  Sept.   11,  1842. 

DEAR  SIR — Having  at  length  given  your  English  Grammar  a  careful 
perusal ;  and  having  compared  it  with  all  the  modern  works  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  have  any  considerable  claims  to  merit,  I  am  prepared  to  make 
a  more  enlightened  decision,  and  one  that  is  satisfactory  to  myself.  The 
work  has  my  decided  preference. 

From  J.  W.  F AIRFIELD,  and  CYKUS  CURTISS,  Esqrs.  Dep.     Superintendents 
of  Common  Schools,  Hudson,  N,   Y. 

Hudson,  Sept.  15,  1842. 

Rev.  P.  BULLIONS, — Sir — We  have  examined  a  copy  of  your  English 
Grammar,  with  reference  to  the  introduction  of  the  same  into  our  pub- 
lic schools,  and  we  take  pleasure  in  saying  that  the  examination  has 
proved  very  satisfactory.  We  cannot,  without  occupying  too  much 
space,  specify  the  particular  points  of  excellence  which  we  noticed  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  different  parts,  the  clearness  of  expression  and 
illustration,  and  the  precise  adaptation  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax,  to  the 
principles  previously  laid  down.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  we  believe 
it  to  be,  in  all  the  requisites  of  a  good  school  book,  superior  to  any  other 
English  Grammar  which  has  come  under  our  observation. 

II.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR,  &c. 

This  work  is  upon  the  foundation  of  ADAM'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR,  so  long 
and  so  well  known  as  a  text  book  in  this  country.  The  object  aimed  at 
was  to  combine  with  all  that  is  excellent  in  the  work  of  Adam,  the  im- 
portant, results  of  subsequent  labors  in  this  field, — to  correct  errors  and 
supply  defects, — to  bring  the  whole  up  to  that  point  which  the  present 
state  of  classical  learning  requires, — and  to  give  it  such  a  form  as  to  ren- 
der it  a  suitable  part  of  the  series.  The  following  notices  are  furnished. 

From  REV.  JAJMES  W.  ALEXANDER,  Prof.  Belles  Lettres  tn  the  College  of 
New- Jersey. 

Princeton,  N.  J.  Aug.  15,  1842. 

1  have  examined  with  some  care  the  Latin  Grammar  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Bullions.  It  is,  if  I  may  hazard  a  judgment,  a  most  valuable  work, 
evincing  that  peculiar  apprehension  of  the  pupil's  necessities,  which 
nothing  but  long  continued  practice  as  an  instructor  can  produce.  Among 
our  various  Lalin  Grammars,  it  deserves  the  place  which  is  occupied  by 
the  best ;  and  no  teacher,  as  I  think,  need  hesitate  a  moment  about  in 
traducing  it 


10 

[From  the  Biblical  Repertory,  or  Princeton  Review,  Jan.  1842. j 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR,  &c. — This  completes  the  seriet 
proposed  by  the  learned  author,  who  has  now  furnished  us  with  an  En^- 
lish,  a  Latin,  and  a  Greek  Grammar,  which  hare  this  peculiar  recom- 
mendation that  they  are  arranged  in  the  same  order,  and  expressed  in 
the  same  terms,  so  far  as  the  differences  of  the  languages  permit.  The 
basis  of  this  manual  is  the  well  known  Grammar  of  Adam,  an  excellent 
summary,  but  at  the  same  time  one  which  adm  cted  of  retrenchment,  ad- 
dition, and  emendation,  all  which  have  been  ably  furnished  by  Dr.  Bui 
lions.  We  have  not  made  a  business  of  perusing  the  work  laboriously, 
but  we  have  looked  over  the  whole  and  bestowed  particular  attention  on 
certain  parts  ;  and  therefore  feel  at  liberty  to  recommend  it  with  great 
confidence,  especially  to  all  such  teachers  as  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
using  Adam's  Grammar. 

III.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  GREEK   GRAMMAR,  &c. 

The  object  of  this  publication  was  to  provide  a  comprehensive  manual 
of  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  use  of  the  younger,  as  well  as  to  the 
more  advanced  class  of  students  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  and  espe 
cially  of  those  under  the  author's  own  care.  To  this  end,  the  leading 
principles  of  Greek  Grammar  are  exhibited  in  rules  as  few  and  brief  as 
possible,  so  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  memory,  and  at  the  same  time 
so  comprehensive  and  perspicuous,  as  to  be  of  general  and  easy  applicators. 

The  following  notices  of  this  work,  from  different  sources,  will  show 
the  estimate  formed  of  it  by  competent  judges. 

BULLIONS'  GREEK  GRAMMAR. — We  have  examined  the  second  edition 
of  Dr.  Bullions'  Greek  Grammar,  and  consider  it,  upon  the  whole,  the 
best  grammar  of  the  Greek  language  with  which  we  are  acquainted 
The  parts  to  be  committed  to  memory  are  both  concise  and  comprehen 
sive  ;  the  illustrations  are  full  without  prolixity,  and  the  arrangement  na- 
tural and  judicious.  The  present  edition  is  considerably  reduced  in  size 
from  the  former,  without,  as  we  apprehend,  at  all  impairing  its  value. 

It  discovers  in  its  compilation  much  labor  and  research,  as  well  as 
sound  judgment.  We  are  persuaded  that  the  general  use  of  it  in  our 
grammar  schools  and  academies  would  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  language.  Judicious  teachers  pursuing  the 
plan  marked  out  by  the  author  in  his  preface,  would  usually  conduct 
their  pupils  to  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  language  in  a  less  time  by 
several  months  than  by  the  systems  formerly  in  use.  We  therefore  give 
it  our  cordial  recommendation.  ELIPHALET  NOTT, 

R.  PROUDFIT, 

Union  College,  December  19,  1840.         ALONZO  POTTER. 

Extract  of  a  letter  from  Rev,  DANIEL  D.  WHEDON,  A.M.  Professor  of  An 
dent  Languages  and  Literature,  in  the  Wesleyan  University,  Middleton,  Ct. 
Wesleyan  University,  March  29,  1842. 
Rev.  Dr.  BULLIONS, — Dear  Sir — Although    I  have  not  the  honcr  0} 


11 

your  personal  acquaintance,  I  take  the  liberty  of  addressing  to  you  my 
thanKs  for  your  excellent  Greek  Grammar.  Nothwithstanding  many 
personal,  urgent,  and  interested  appeals  in  favor  of  other  grammars — and 
our  literary  market  seems  to  abound  with  that  kind  of  stock — the  in- 
trinsic superiority  of  your  manual  over  every  rival,  induced  me.  after  1 
saw  your  last  edition,  to  adopt  it  in  the  Greek  department  of  the  Wes- 
leyan  University,  and  the  success  of  my  present  Freshman  class,  amply 
justifies  the  course. 

Extract  c-f  a  letter  from  HENRY  BANNISTER,  A.M.  Principal  of  the  Academy 
in  Fair/feW,  N.  Y. 

Fairfidd  Academy,  May  12,  1842. 

Rev.  Doct.  BULLIONS, — Sir — Sometime  since  I  received  your  English 
and  Greek  Grammar,  of  each,  one  copy ;  and,  if  it  is  not  loo  late,  I 
would  now  return  you  my  sincere  thank*.  I  have  not  found  in  any  work, 
suitable  for  a  text  book  in  schools,  an  analysis  of  the  verb  so  strictly 
philosophical,  and  at  the  same  time  so  easy  to  the  learner  to  master  and 
to  retain  when  mastered,  as  that  contained  in  your  work.  The  editorial 
observations  on  government,  and  indeed  the  whole  matter  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  Syntax,  especially  commend  your  work  to  general  use  in 

schools.  

[From  the  Princeton  Review,  for  Jan.  1840.] 

It  is  with  pleasure  we  welcome  a  second  edition  of  this  manual,  which 
we  continue  to  regard  as  still  unsurpassed  by  any  similar  work  in  our 
language.  Tiie  typography  and  the  quality  of  the  paper  are  uncommon- 
ly  good.  We  observe  valuable  additions  and  alterations.  For  all  that  we 
can  see,  everything  worth  knowing  in  Thiersch  is  here  condensed  into  a 
few  pages.  We  have  certainly  never  seen  the  anatomy  of  the  Greek 
verb  so  neatly  demonstrated.  The  Syntax  is  full,  and  presents  the  lead- 
ing  facts  and  principles,  by  rules,  so  as  to  be  easily  committed  to  mem. 
ory.  To  learners  who  are  beginning  the  language,  and  especially  to 
teachers  of  grammar  schools,  we  earnestly  recommend  this  book. 

[From  the  New-York  Observer.] 

BULLIONS'  PRINCIPLES  OF  GREEK  GRAMMAR,  &c.  2d  edition.  With 
pleasure  we  hail  the  second  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  and  are  happy 
to  find  that  the  revision  which  it  has  undergone  has  resulted  in  decided 
improvements.  Formed,  as  it  is,  on  the  basis  of  that  most  symmetrical 
of  all  modern  grammars.  Dr.  Moor's  Greek  Grammar,  which  its  learned 
author  never  lived  to  complete.  It  is  now  made  to  embrace  not  only  the 
general  rules,  but  all  the  minutiae  essential  to  a  critical  knowledge  of 
that  ancient  and  elegant  language.  One  of  the  chief  excellencies  of  this 
model,  and  one  that  is  fully  retained  in  this  grammar,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  simplicity,  perspicuity,  conciseness,  and  yet  fulness  of  the  definitions 
and  rules  for  the  various  modifications  of  the  language.  The  sense  is 
clearly  expressed,  while  scarcely  a  particle  is  used  that  could  have  been 
dispensed  with.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  the  opinion,  thaf 
Dr.  B.  has  produced  the  most  complete  and  useful  Greek  grammar  thx' 
is  to  be  found  in  the  English  language. 


__J6  12 

RECOMMENDATIONS   OF  THE  SERIES. 

Prom  the  Rev.  JOHN  LUDLOW,  D.D.  Provost  of  the  University  oj  Penn. 

No  one  I  think  can  ever  examine  the  series  of  Grammars  puhlished  bv 
Dr.  Bullions,  without  a  deep  conviction  of  their  superior  excellence. 
When  the  English  Grammar,  the  first  in  the  series,  was  published  in 
1834.  it  was  rny  pleasure,  in  connexion  with  some  honored  individuals, 
in  the  city  of  Albany,  to  bear  the  highest  testimony  to  its  worth  ;  that 
testimony,  if  I  mistake  riot,  received  the  unanimous  approval  of  all 
whose  judgment  can  or  ought  to  influence  public  opinion.  I  have  seen, 
with  great  gratification,  that  the  2d  and  3d  in  the  series,  the  Latin  and 
Greek,  have  met  with  the  same  favorable  judgement,  which  I  believe  to 
be  entirely  deserved,  and  in  which  I  do  most  heartily  concur. 

From  the  Hon.  ALFRED  CONKLING,  Judge  of  the  United  Staffs  Court  in  iht 

Northern  District  of  New-  York,  published  in  the  Cayitga  Patriot. 
BULLIONS'  SERIES  OF  GRAMMARS. — By  the  recent  publication  of  "  Tug 
PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR,"  this  series  of  grammars  (English,  Latin, 
and  Greek,)  is  at  length  completed.  To  their  preparation,  Dr.  Bullions 
has  devoted  many  years  of  the  best  portion  of  his  life.  In  the  composi. 
lion  of  these  books,  lie  has  shown  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  works 
of  his  ablest  predecessors;  and  while  upon  the  one  hand,  he  has  not  scru- 
pled freely  to  avail  himself  of  their  labors,  on  the  other  hand,  bv  studi- 
ously avoiding  all  that  is  objectionable  in  them,  and  by  re-rnodcllir.g,  im- 
proving, and  illustrating  the  rest,  he  has  unquestionably  succeeded  in  con. 
structing  the  best — decidedly  the  very  best — grammar,  in  each  of  the 
three  above  named  languages,  that  has  yet  appeared.  Such  is  the  deli- 
berate and  impartial  judgment  which  has  been  repeatedly  expressed  by 
the  most  competent  judges,  respecting  the  English  and  Greek  grammars  ; 
and  such,  I  hesitate  not  to  believe,  will  be  the  judgment  formed  of  the 
Latin  grammar.  But  independently  of  the  superiority  of  these  works 
separately  considered,  they  possess,  collectively,  the  great  additional  re- 
commendation of  having  their  leading  parts  arranged  in  the  same  order, 
and,  as  far  as  properly  can  be  done,  expressed  in  the  same  language.  An 
acquaintance  with  one  of  them,  therefore,  cannot  fail  greatly  to  facilitaie 
the  study  of  another,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  directing  the  attention  of 
the  student  distinctly  to  the  points  of  agreement  arid  of  difference  in  the 
several  languages,  to  render  his  acquisitions  more  accurate,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  give  him  clearer  and  more  comprehensive  views  of  the 
general  principles  of  language.  The  importance  of  using  in  academies 
and  schools  of  the  United  States  none  but  ably  written  and  unexcep 
tionable  school  books,  is  incalculable  ;  and  without  intending  unnecessa. 
nly  to  depreciate  the  labors  of  others,  as  a  friend  of  sound  education,  I 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  an  earnest  hope  of  seeing  this  series  of 
grammars  in  general  use.  They  are  all  beautifully  printed  on  very  good 
paper,  and  are  sold  at  very  reasonable  prices. 


ADVEETISEMEIT. 


UPERIOR    TEXT    B  O  O  K.  8  . 


THE  attention  of  Teachers,  School  Committees,  and  all  inter- 
ested in  good  education,  is  solicited  to  the  following  School 
Books,  which  are  for  sale  by  booksellers  generally,  viz  : 

BULLIONS'  SERIES  OF  GRAMMARS: 

PRACTICAL  LESSONS  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,  FOR  SCHOOLS. 

LATIN  LESSONS,  WITH  EXERCISES,  BY  G.  SPENCER,  A.  M. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

LATIN  READER,  WITH  THE  IDIOMS  AND  VOCABULARY. 

CESAR'S  COMMENTARIES,  WITH  NOTES  AND  VOCABULARY. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  GREEK  GRAMMAR. 

A  GREEK  READER,  WITH  IDIOMS,  NOTES  AND  VOCABULARY. 

These  Books  have  obtained  a  sterling  reputation  throughout 
the  country.  They  are  found  to  be  remarkably  clear  and  simple, 
and  to  contain  every  thing  necessary  to  good  scholarship,  without 
redundancy.  The  definitions  of  the  various  languages  being  ex- 
pressed, as  far  as  possible,  in  the  same  terms,  the  pupil  progresses 
with  rapidity,  and  saves  months  of  the  time  spent  in  using  the 
usual  class  books.  In  fact,  Dr.  Bullions'  books  are  precisely 
adapted  for  teaching,  and  save  both  time  and  expense,  being  sold 
at  low  prices,  though  made  in  the  best  style.  They  are  in  use  in 
some  of  the  best  schools  and  colleges  it  is  believed  in  every  State 
in  the  Union.  They  are  recommended  by — 

Hon.  J.  A.  Dix,  U.  S.  Senator.  Professor  HOYT,  of  Lima  Insti- 
Bishop  POTTER,  formerly  of  tute. 

Union  College.  Rev.  J.  LUDLOW,  Provost  of 

Rev.  J.  W.  ALEXANDER,  D.  D.,  Pennsylvania  University, 

of  Princeton  College.  THOMAS  EUSTAW,  Esq.,  of  St. 

Rev.  B.  HALE,  D.  D.,  President  Louis. 

of  Geneva  College.  Professor  J.  GREENE,  of  Madi- 

Rev.  C.  MASON,  D.  D.,  of  New  son  University,  Indiana. 

York  University.  President  E.  H.  NEVIN,  of 

Professor  WHEATON,  of  Middle-  Franklin  College,  Ohio. 

town  College.  President  T.  H.  BIGGS,  of  Cm- 

Rev.  H.  BANNISTER,  D.  D.,  of  cinnati  College- 

Oneida  Institute.  Professor  W.  H.  McGuFFEY. 

And  a  great  number  of  eminent  scholars  and  teachers  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee  and  other  States, 


ADVERTISEMENT. 

COOPER'S  VIRGIL,  WITH  ENGLISH  NOTES,  MYTHOLOGICAL, 
BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  &c. 

THE  ILLUSTRATIVE  DEFINER,  a  Dictionary  of  words  in  common 
use ;  is  intended  to  teach  children,  by  examples  and  by  exercises 
in  composition,  the  true,  definite  meaning  of  words,  and  exhibits 
all  Mr.  Gallaudet's  well-known  capacity  as  an  instructor  of  youth. 

THE  PICTORAL  SPELLING  BOOK,  by  R.  Bentley,is  a  most  beau- 
tiful and  attractive  work  for  children. 

OLNEY'S  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ATLAS.  This  work,  well- 
known  in  almost  every  village  in  the  United  States,  has  recently 
been  revised.  The  Atlas  is  entirely  new,  and  contains  numerous 
maps,  exhibiting  every  quarter  of  the  globe  on  a  large  scale,  and 
showing  the  relative  situation  of  countries  more  clearly  than  any 
other  atlas.  It  contains  also  an  ancient  map,  exhibiting  almost 
the  entire  portion  of  the  world  embraced  in  Ancient  History. 
The  publishers  believe  that  a  thorough  examination  will  convince 
the  practical  teacher  that  this  work  is  superior  for  use  to  any 
other,  and  it  possesses  a  permanent  value  for  daily  reference.  It 
is  easy  of  comprehension,  and  conducts  the  pupil  in  a  most  natural 
manner  to  a  competent  knowledge  of  Geography.  It  is  deemed 
superfluous  to  publish  recommendations  of  a  work  so  generally 
known.  It  is  intended  that  it  shall  continue  to  deserve  the  great 
popularity  which  it  has  always  maintained,  and  that  the  prices 
shall  be  as  reasonable  as  can  be  asked. 


BOOKS  ON  THE  SCIENCES,  by  J.  L  COMSTOCK,  M.  D. 

COMSTOCK'S  SYSTEM  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 
COMSTOCK'S  ELEMENTS  OF  CHEMISTRY.  . 
COMSTOCK'S  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 
COMSTOCK'S  OUTLINES  OF  PHYSIOLOGY. 
COMSTOCK'S  ELEMENTS  OF  MINERALOGY. 

This  series  of  books  is  in  so  general  use  that  the  publishers 
would  only  take  occasion  to  state  that  it  is  found  superior  to  any 
in  use  in  Europe.  The  Philosophy  has  already  been  republished 
in  Scotland  ;  translated  for  the  use  of  schools  in  Prussia ;  and 
portions  of  the  series  are  now  in  course  of  publication  in  London. 
Such  testimony,  in  addition  to  the  general  good  testimony  of 
teachers  in  this  country,  is  sufficient.  The  Elements  of  Chemis- 
try has  been  entirely  revised  by  the  author,  the  present  year,  and 
contains  »)1  the  late  discoveries. 

Published  by  PRATT,  WOODFORD  &  CO. 

.,.  J5.9  Pearl  street,  N.  Y. 

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5 

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ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

Books  needed  for  class  reserve  are  subject  to  immediate  recall 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


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